Childbirth in ancient Rome was dangerous for both the mother and the child. Mothers usually would rely on religious superstition to avoid death. Certain customs such lying in bed after childbirth and using plants and herbs as relief were also practiced. Midwives assisted the mothers in birth. Once children were they would not be given a name until 8 or 9 days after their birth. The number depended on if they were male or female. One the days passed, the child would be gifted a name and a bulla during a ceremony. Once a child reached the age of 1, they would gain legal privileges which could lead to citizenship. Children under 7 were considered infants, and were under the care of women. From age 8 to 12 or 14, 12 if you were a women, and 14 if you are male, children would do housework. After the age of 12 or 14 the children entered adulthood. Children would often have a variety of toys to play with. If a child died they could be buried or cremated. Some would be commemorated in Roman religious tradition.

In ancient Rome, childbirth was the aim of a Roman marriage. Procreation was the prime duty and expectation of a woman.^[1] Childbirth also brought upon high risk to both the mother and child due to a greater chance of complications, which included infection, uterine hemorrhage, and the young age of the mothers. Women relied mainly on the religious and superstitious practices associated with medicine at this time. After conception, women would rest in bed to “preserve the seed.”^[2] To treat pregnancy symptoms they would eat a bland diet of eggs or rice and would be massaged with olive oil. Plants and herbs such as dittany leaves, scordotis in hydromel and the root of verbena were used for relief during labor. Also, methodologies such as a drink powdered with sow’s dung to relieve labor pains and fumes from hyena loin fat or placing the right foot of a hyena on the woman to induce an easy delivery were of use. The development of midwives greatly improved the birthing process for Roman women. Midwives assisted births in the home and prepared the mothers with oil for lubrication, warm water, sponges, and provided bandages for the newborn. During difficult births tools with sharp hooks would be used to extract the baby. Once the baby was born the midwife would cut the umbilical cord, remove the placenta and then they would decide if the child was worth keeping. Once declared fit to live, as a Roman ritual the midwife would place the child on the ground for the head of the household to then raise up and claim it to rear.^[2]

Infants in ancient Rome were not named until days after they were born (females 8 days, males 9 days) due to a high infant mortality rate. On the 8th or 9th day a gathering would occur consisting of family and friends bearing gifts. Then a sacrifice would be made and the child would be named and given a bulla to identify him or her as freeborn.^[3]

Romans kept track of the passing of time by celebrating their birthday every year. These celebrations consisted of wine, garlands of flowers, ritual cakes, and fire on the domestic altar. A child who reached its first birthday (the stage known as anniculus) was able to have legal privileges and the parents could apply for full Roman citizenship for their child. Between birth and the age of 7, children were considered to be in the infant stage (infantia in Latin), and were generally in the care of women regardless of gender. From the ages of 8 until the onset of puberty (traditionally 12 for girls and 14 for boys in Ancient Rome), children were seen to have more rational minds and were expected to take on responsibility around the home such as taking care of the animals, gathering materials, and general chores around the house. Also during these years, children were considered to be aware of social and sexual roles and children’s groups were organized by gender at that time. At this age Romans knew children were able to understand speech, making them eligible for betrothal. Roman law classified some ages at which a child can have social, moral, or criminal responsibility.^[3] Under the age of puberty, a child was considered to be doli incapax (incapable of criminal intent). A child between 8 and puberty, however, still had the possibility of being held responsible for a criminal act if it could be proven that they understood their offense. Rome's laws did not use imprisonment or the death penalty for the purpose of criminal punishment generally, and the Valerian and Porcian laws exempted all Roman citizens from degrading and shameful forms of punishment, such as whipping, scourging, or crucifixion; but in the case of theft (for example; furtum), the child and his/her family would be punished by being required to return the stolen object, and in some cases two or four times the value of the stolen object. The age of marriage for girls could be as young as 12, and for boys, as young as 14. By the age they reached puberty, boys underwent a ritual transitioning them into manhood. The ceremony involves them removing their bulla and the tunic they wore through childhood and put on a man’s toga while accompanied by their fathers and other relatives. The stages of life the Roman state took note of were birth and coming of age for males, and death. On these days taxes and financial offerings were due.^[3]

In ancient Rome the pater familias held power over the rest of the family. His power over his family would remain until he died or his children were freed from the pater familias. The pater familias was the oldest living male in the family. The ideal mother was called the Roman matrona. The Roman matrona would be a strong and virtuous women that was dedicated to the political advancement of her family.^[4]

Roman children had different clothing from adults until they came of age or were married. Children’s education was normally practiced at home. When children were not being educated their play time consisted of a variety of toys such as rattles, dolls made of cloth, clay, or wax, toy weapons, letter blocks, tops, balls and hoops made of sticks. Dogs were also common pets that children played with. Roman children were not allowed to bathe in the Roman baths, instead, they bathed at home.^[3]

Due to disease, epidemics, and high mortality in the Roman world, children experienced death regularly. Children were very much a part of the funeral process with the death of close family. There are no findings that suggest that children were not present during the required purification of the death a family member. They were also allowed to participate in Parentalia in February, which was a time to visit the graves and remember the dead.

Because children were memorialized on tombstones it shows that they were recognized as individuals when they died, though they had a better chance of being commemorated after surviving infancy.^[5] Older children were commemorated in the Roman religious tradition, but babies less than 40 days old were usually buried instead of cremated. They were buried within the city walls, under the house, because they were considered not developed enough to negatively impact Roman religion for not burying them outside the walls. Babies were at very high risk of death and there was no formal mourning period for an infant less than 1 year old. As children got older their mourning period grew longer until they were 10 years old and had the same mourning period as an adult (10 months).^[5]

• Adoption in ancient Rome

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