Chinese irredentism refers to irredentist claims to parts of the former Chinese Empire, to the Republic of China and to even recent People's Republic of China.

In Chinese political theory, relations between foreign states were governed by the tributary system. Since the Emperor of China held the Mandate of Heaven, his rule was universal and extended to All under heaven. Sometimes neighboring states were actual protectorates or vassal states over which China exerted large amounts of influence, while in other cases foreign states merely acknowledged China's nominal suzerainty in order to gain access to Chinese trade, which took place through the tributary system.^[1]

The king of the ancient state of Qin first unified the Chinese empire in 221 BC by conquering all of the other states in what was then considered China and proclaimed himself the "First Emperor" and became known as Qin Shi Huang.^[2] Under the Qin, China started to expand southward and northward, clashing with ancient Viet, Korean and Xiongnu peoples.^[3]

The ancient Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) established control over northern Vietnam, northern Korea where they also established Four Commanderies of Han and the Tarim Basin of Central Asia.^[4]

The Sui Dynasty attempted to expand into Korea but was stopped after disastrous campaigns that ended the dynasty.^[5] The short-lived Sui dynasty (581–618 AD) also reinvaded Annam (northern Vietnam) and attacked Champa (southern Vietnam).

The later Tang dynasty (618–907) was the height of ancient Chinese expansion. aided the Korean Silla Kingdom in defeating their two Korean rivals, yet became shortchanged when they discovered Silla was not about to allow the Tang to claim much of Goguryeo's territory (as it had been under the Chinese Han dynasty's control a few centuries before, the Han having wrested it from native kingdoms at that time). The Tang Dynasty established control over the Tarim Basin region as well, fighting wars with the new Tibetan Empire and stripping them of their colonies in Central Asia, granting China total control of Central Asia until the An Lushan Rebellion.

The Song dynasty (960–1279), in securing maritime trade routes that ran from South East Asia into the Indian Ocean, had established fortified trade bases in the Philippines. It also sought to reclaim Vietnam and various northern heartland from the Jurchens, but it was unsuccessful.^[6][7][8][9]

The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty (1279–1368) made attempts to invade Japan after securing the Korean peninsula through the vassaldom of the Korean Goryeo dynasty, yet both of these military ventures failed (see Mongol Invasions of Japan).^[10] The Yuan dynasty also invaded Burma and Tibet.^[11][12] However, alongside its failed invasion of Japan the Mongols had been extremely unsuccessful in its attempt to conquer Vietnam and India, and disastrous naval expedition attempts to invade Java led to the end of Sino-Mongol expansionist desires.^{[13][14][15][16]}

During the Ming Dynasty, Yongle invaded Vietnam but was eventually defeated in the Battle of Tốt Động – Chúc Động.^[17] After the failure, the Ming stopped adhering to expansionism until the rise of the Qing dynasty.

The Qing Dynasty was a Manchu gunpowder empire that inaugurated a new age in Chinese expansionism. Under the Qing rule, China expanded beyond the Great Wall and started to annex more territories in process. The Qing invaded Korea, managed to conquer Mongolia, and also annexed modern territories of Xinjiang and Tibet as well.^{[18][19][20][21]} The Qing dynasty also extended its control into Central Asia^[22] and annexed Taiwan, which was previous controlled by Ming loyalists.^[23] However, the Qing Empire on the same time failed to invade Burma, Vietnam and had very few successes in Nepal.^[24][25][26] Qing expansionism slowed to a halt following its century of humiliation at the hands of Western powers.^[27]

During the People's Republic of China era, China conquered Xinjiang^[28] and Tibet.^[29] China also fought a border war with India in 1962 which resulted in the gain of Aksai Chin.^[30] In 1974, China invaded the Paracel Islands^[31] which was seen as a resurgent Chinese expansionism.^[32] China also fought a short war with Vietnam in 1979 which ended stalemate.^[33]

Since the Chinese economic reform of 1978, China has managed to transform into a new economic, military and political superpower. In process, China has also expanded greatly its economy, and since 2010, is the second largest economy in the world. As China transformed, there have been hopes that China would give up its expansionist idea.^[34] However, since the rise of Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping in power, and increasing territorial conflicts which China stated most of their disputed lands belong to China, it is widely known that China has continued to adhere to irredentism to even today.^[35][36]

China managed to reclaim Hong Kong in 1997 and followed up with Macau two years later, with both spanned 50 years to prepare for peaceful reintegration from autonomy to a main city under Chinese rule.^[37][38][39]

However, China's disregard of the city's autonomy, especially in Hong Kong, led to anti-Chinese protests, especially the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests, which resulted in the imposition of Hong Kong national security law by the Chinese government that openly eroded the autonomy of the city.^{[40][41][42][39]}

Although Macau has been relatively calm, there had been several protests, albeit not at extent of Hong Kong's, the largest being 2007 Macau transfer of sovereignty anniversary protest.^[43]

China has sought to retain its control over Tibet and Xinjiang by various historic and ruthless methods, including publishing historical claims traced from various ancient Chinese dynasties to make it unquestionable for China; to further repressive policy of persecution on ethnic Tibetans and Uyghurs from religious, cultural and linguistic forms.^[44][42][45]

Inner Mongolia has experienced a lesser level of violence and hostility comparing to Tibet and Xinjiang. However, in recent years, the Chinese government has increased its repressive methods toward ethnic Mongols following protests in regard to unequal economic distribution, environmental exploitation, Han migration and pollution.^[46] In 2020, the Chinese government shut down Bainu – the only Mongolian language app for ethnic Mongols in China, and enforced assimilation of Mongols into mainly Han-dominated ethnic population, notably replacing Mongolian language into Mandarin Chinese.^[47][48]

China has sought to gather claim over the sea since 2010s, by imposing nine-dash line, and attempts to reinforce the claim, both legal and illegal ways, which have been rejected by every disputing countries and other major nations in regard to China's expansionist ambitions over territorial claims over Taiwan, Vietnam, the Philippines, Brunei and Malaysia.^[49][50] Further escalating the conflict, China announced the establishment of Sansha, which included entire of Paracel Islands and Spratly Islands triggering tensions.^[51]

China has a multifaceted role in Internal conflict in Myanmar, where China has major economic interests as well as its relations with various insurgent groups bordering China.^[52] On the other hand, China is believed, by majority of Burmese population, that is trying to disrupt peace process in Myanmar, and that China is planning to takeover Kachin State and Shan State from Myanmar, given its unstable and porous border.^[53][54] Although Sino-Burmese border have been ratified, such concerns remain high in Myanmar due to China's role in the country.

Vietnam also has a number of disputes in mainland with China, especially in regard to Ban Gioc–Detian Falls, which, following the infamous 1979 war, had been divided into two sides, with Vietnam took over half and China seized the other and remains to even now.^[55] There is still a strong sentiment in Vietnam that the entire of Ban Gioc must be Vietnamese, and China stole half of it, which was influenced by historic conflicts between Vietnam and China.^[56]

Traditionally, Indonesia refrains from joining campaigns against China's claims in Southeast Asia, and adopts a moderate, pragmatic approach. However, nationalist sentiment started to rise in Indonesia following the sharp rise of Chinese irredentist movement claiming Natuna Regency as part of China.^[57][58]

In recent years, China's tensions with two other fellow economic superpowers, Japan and South Korea, have intensified. Triggered by the Senkaku Islands dispute (called Diaoyu in China), as well as Japan's control of Ryukyu Islands, which China thought to be its rightful reward following the end of World War II, the tensions have increased.^[59] To reinforce the nationalist claims, China frequently deployed ships since 2010s to contest Japan's claims over the islands, force the Japanese to reinforce total claims over the islands.^[60][61][62] Further, China laid claims over entire of Okinawa Island which triggered Japan's response.^[63]

China has also attempted to reinforce its territorial claim over the Socotra Rock and has pushed forward by sending its ships, both civilian fishing and military ships to imposing ADIZ, thus challenging South Korea's sovereign claim, though it is less frequent than that of Japan's.^[64][65][66]

Since 2000s, a number of historic disputes with regard of Goguryeo led to a growing sentiment in Korea, both North and South that, China has been trying to reinforce and claim Korean territory throughout historical distortion, partly owning by the development of Northeast Project of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences in China.^[67] Although the project ended in 2007, historic spats remain.^[68]

Outside that, China also seeks to claim Paektu Mountain from Korea, which led to strong criticism against China in South Korea that China is trying to grab the mountain to China, as the mountain is seen as a sacred symbol by Koreans.^[69]

The People's Republic of China and Republic of China (Taiwan) have largely agreed under the One-China policy that only one China could be recognized as the legitimate China since 1992. However, skepticism from Taiwanese toward China was intensified by growing Chinese nationalist claim over Taiwan and its open threat to invade the island.^[70] Since the election of Tsai Ing-wen, Beijing has stepped up attempting to consolidate the island, and doing military drills for any possible invasion on Taiwan.^[71][72]

China has territorial disputes with India with regard to Kashmir and Arunachal Pradesh, partly a consequence of the British expedition to Tibet which led the land to be under Indian control by the Simla Convention, as India was under British rule.^[73] Tensions between two countries have erupted into war several times, with the largest war being the Sino-Indian War of 1962 which China managed to control Aksai Chin from India, and 1967 conflict that China suffered military defeat to India.^[30][74] The recent 2020 border clashes, which caused casualties for both sides, further strained the relations.^[75]

China has attempted to reinforce the claim over by publishing varieties of map including Arunachal Pradesh to be Chinese territory.^[76] China also pushes forward to reinforce its claim over Sikkim, Ladakh and consolidating border control in Aksai Chin.^[77][78] Further complicating the relations, China openly endorses growing Nepalese and Pakistani irredentism against India to provide for China's stronger supports on its irredentist claims over Indian territory.^[79]

China and Bhutan do not have any diplomatic missions. On June 29, 2017, Bhutan protested to China against the construction of a road in the disputed territory of Doklam, at the meeting point of Bhutan, India and China.^[80] On the same day, the Bhutanese border was put on high alert and border security was tightened as a result of the growing tensions.^[81] In 2020, China has sought to claim eastern Bhutan, including Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary, to be Chinese territory, which was considered as a surprise in Bhutan, further escalated the tensions between Bhutan and China.^[82]

China is currently Nepal's ally, a result of the strengthening power by the Nepal Communist Party.^[83] The party has been more engaged in disputes with India and has sought to undermine its tensions with China amidst the increasing political crisis in Nepal.^[84] Nonetheless, it became further complicated after CCTV's foreign outlet CGTN published on Twitter a tweet about the Mount Everest and called it Mount Qomolangma in the Tibetan language (Tibet is currently part of China), which caused widespread enrages from the Nepalese public that China is trying to claim the mount from Nepal.^[85]

Although China doesn't have any significant disputes with Central Asia, growing Chinese nationalism resulted in a sharp rise of Chinese irredentism in the region, a part due to Chinese government's possible tacit support for nationalist claims.^[86]

From 2019 to 2020, several private websites with tie to the Chinese government, sohu.com and tuotiao.com, published nationalist claims against Kazakhstan and stating that Kazakhstan has been territory of China for antiquity and Kazakhs should not complain about being invaded by China.^[87] This has triggered significant criticism and hostility from the Kazakhstani side.^[88][89] Despite China's plead to not allow such information from affecting the two countries' relations, there is a strong sentiment in Kazakhstan that it could not be published without approval from the Chinese government.^[90]

Similar to Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan has been facing growing Chinese irredentism. A Kyrgyz farmer in a 2017 interview claimed "We always run the risk of being colonized by the Chinese,", in fear of future being colonized by China.^[91]

In 2020, tuotiao.com published a nationalist claim that Kyrgyzstan should be back to China, claimed that the land had been Chinese under the Yuan and Qing until being colonized by Russia, which was criticized in Kyrgyzstan.^[89]

Even though China and Tajikistan have ratified its border, sporadic tensions have begun since 2010s. Resentment against China and Chinese also increased in Tajikistan recent years due to accusation of China's land grab from Tajikistan.^[92] In 2013, Tajik Popular Social-Democrat Party leader, Rakhmatillo Zoirov, claimed Chinese troops were entering to Tajikistan deeper than it got from land ceding.^[93]

In 2020, Tajikistan went headline with public uproar over China's attempt to grab Pamir from Tajikistan, and has been accused of deploying troops here.^[94]

Since 1990s, Mongolia has been dependant of China, economically. However, rumors of Chinese irredentist claims on Mongolia sometimes affect Mongolian opinions on China and foments Mongolia on seeking new allies to counter China.^[95] Mongolia has always been suspicious that China wants to claim Mongolian territory, and concerned by fears of China's overpopulation pouring into Mongolian territory.^[96][97]

Dispute between two countries have been solved in 2004, China and Russia have stopped claiming land from each other, and even now, the border between two remains the calmest among all border disputes China had. However, there has also been a perceived fear of a demographic takeover by Chinese immigrants in sparsely populated Russian areas.^[98][99] On the other hand, China has also downplayed issues of territorial and social problems with regard to Russia, even during the COVID-19 pandemic as part of boosting strategic relationship.^[100]

• Chinese imperialism
• Chinese nationalism
• Han chauvinism
• Anti-Chinese sentiment
• Sinicization
• Sinocentrism
• Salami slicing strategy
• String of Pearls strategy
• Five Fingers of Tibet policy
• Tributary system of China

• Chinese irredentism threatens Asia -- and may come back to haunt Beijing
• Assertive China: Irredentism or Expansionism?
• Chinese Irredentism and the Great Rejuvenation
• Chinese nationalism and its foreign policy implications
• Chinese culture is shallow and chauvinistic
• Could Han Chauvinism Turn the ‘Chinese Dream’ into a ‘Chinese Nightmare’?
• East China Sea or South China Sea, they are all China's Seas: comparing nationalism among China's maritime irredentist claims
• How Chinese Nationalism Is Changing
• The Rise of Chinese Exceptionalism in International Relations

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