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Climbing is not fun, it's never been fun, it'll never be fun. Have fun messing with the Wiki. Did you know that John Adams was homosexual. Yeah, surprised me too. It's hard to understand poetry when a poet is too vague. Also, am I allowed to make political opinions on Wikipedia, ok....................................................................................................................................................................................Yeah, that was my opinion on Mexico. Here's an article about Stones Rolling.The Rolling Stones are an English rock band formed in London in 1962. Active for six decades, they are one of the most popular and enduring bands of the rock era. In the early 1960s, the Rolling Stones pioneered the gritty, rhythmically driven sound that came to define hard rock. Their first stable line-up consisted of vocalist Mick Jagger, multi-instrumentalist Brian Jones, guitarist Keith Richards, bassist Bill Wyman, and drummer Charlie Watts. During their formative years, Jones was the primary leader: he assembled the band, named it, and drove their sound and image. After Andrew Loog Oldham became the group's manager in 1963, he encouraged them to write their own songs. Jagger and Richards became the primary creative force behind the band, alienating Jones, who had developed a drug addiction that interfered with his ability to contribute meaningfully. Yep that's stones rolling. I'ma add more stuff that doesn't pertain to rock climbing.Rubber Soul is the sixth studio album by the English rock band the Beatles. It was released on 3 December 1965 in the United Kingdom, on EMI's Parlophone label, accompanied by the non-album double A-side single "Day Tripper" / "We Can Work It Out". The original North American release, issued by Capitol Records, contains ten of the fourteen songs and two tracks withheld from the band's Help! album. Rubber Soul was met with a highly favourable critical response and topped sales charts in Britain and the United States for several weeks.

The recording sessions took place in London over a four-week period beginning in October 1965. For the first time in their career, the Beatles were able to record an album free of concert, radio or film commitments. Often referred to as a folk rock album, particularly in its Capitol configuration, Rubber Soul incorporates a mix of pop, soul and folk musical styles. The title derives from the colloquialism "plastic soul" and was the Beatles' way of acknowledging their lack of authenticity compared to the African-American soul artists they admired. After A Hard Day's Night in 1964, it was the second Beatles LP to contain only original material.

The songs demonstrate the Beatles' increasing maturity as lyricists, and in their incorporation of brighter guitar tones and new instrumentation such as sitar, harmonium and fuzz bass, the group striving for more expressive sounds and arrangements for their music. The project marked a progression in the band's treatment of the album format as an artistic platform, an approach they continued to develop with Revolver and Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. The four songs omitted by Capitol, including the February 1966 single "Nowhere Man", later appeared on the North American release Yesterday and Today.

Rubber Soul was highly influential on the Beatles' peers, leading to a widespread focus away from singles and onto creating albums of consistently high-quality songs. It has been recognised by music critics as an album that opened up the possibilities of pop music in terms of lyrical and musical scope, and as a key work in the creation of styles such as psychedelia and progressive rock. Among its many appearances on critics' best-album lists, Rolling Stone ranked it fifth on the magazine's 2012 list "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time". In 2000, it was voted at number 34 in the third edition of Colin Larkin's book All Time Top 1000 Albums. The album was certified 6× platinum by the RIAA in 1997, indicating shipments of at least six million copies in the US. In 2013, Rubber Soul was certified platinum by the BPI for UK sales since 1994.

Background

The Beatles at a press conference during their August 1965 North American tour, two months before the start of the Rubber Soul sessions Most of the songs on Rubber Soul were composed soon after the Beatles' return to London following their August 1965 North American tour.[4] The album reflects the influence of their month in America.[5] Aside from setting a new attendance record when they played to over 55,000 at Shea Stadium on 15 August, the tour allowed the band to meet with Bob Dylan in New York and their longtime hero Elvis Presley in Los Angeles.[6] Although the Beatles had released their album Help! that same month, the requirement for a new album in time for Christmas was in keeping with the schedule established with EMI in 1963 by Brian Epstein, the group's manager,[7] and George Martin, their record producer.[8]

In their new songs, the Beatles drew inspiration from soul music acts signed to the Motown and Stax record labels,[9] particularly the singles they heard on US radio that summer,[10] and from the contemporary folk rock of Dylan and the Byrds.[1] Author Robert Rodriguez highlights the Byrds as having achieved "special notice as an American act that had taken something from the Brits, added to it, then sent it back". In doing so, Rodriguez continues, the Byrds had joined the Beatles and Dylan in "a common pool of influence exchange, where each act gave and took from the other in equal measure".[11][nb 1] According to music critic Tim Riley, Rubber Soul served as a "step toward a greater synthesis" of all the elements that throughout 1965 represented a "major rock 'n' roll explosion", rather than just the emergence of folk rock. Citing Dylan and the Rolling Stones as the Beatles' artistic peers during this period, he says that on Rubber Soul these two acts "inspire rather than influence their sound".[14]Two years after the start of Beatlemania, the band were open to exploring new themes in their music through a combination of their tiring of playing to audiences full of screaming fans, their commercial power, a shared curiosity gained through literature and experimentation with hallucinogenic drugs, and their interest in the potential of the recording studio.[15] According to Ringo Starr, Rubber Soul was the Beatles' "departure record", written and recorded during a period when, largely through the influence of marijuana,[16] "We were expanding in all areas of our lives, opening up to a lot of different attitudes."[17][18] The album was especially reflective of John Lennon's maturation as a songwriter,[19][20] as he was encouraged to address wider-ranging issues than before through Dylan's example.[21] George Harrison's outlook had been transformed by his and Lennon's experiences with the hallucinogenic drug LSD;[22][23] he said the drug had revealed to him the futility of the band's widespread fame[24] by "open[ing] up this whole other consciousness".[25]

Author Mark Prendergast recognises Rubber Soul as "the first Beatles record which was noticeably drug-influenced".[26] Lennon called it "the pot album".[27][28] Marijuana appealed to the band's bohemian ideal. Paul McCartney, who was the only Beatle still living in central London, said it was typical of a move away from alcohol and into "more of a beatnik scene, like jazz".[29]

Production Recording history Rubber Soul was a matter of having all experienced the recording studio, having grown musically as well, but [getting] the knowledge of the place, of the studio. We were more precise about making the album, that's all, and we took over the cover and everything.[30]

– John Lennon Recording for Rubber Soul began on 12 October 1965 at EMI Studios (now Abbey Road Studios) in London; final production and mix down took place on 15 November.[31] During the sessions, the Beatles typically focused on fine-tuning the musical arrangement for each song, an approach that reflected the growing division between the band as a live act and their ambitions as recording artists.[32] The album was one of the first projects that Martin undertook after leaving EMI's staff and co-founding Associated Independent Recording (AIR).[33] Martin later described Rubber Soul as "the first album to present a new, growing Beatles to the world",[34] adding: "For the first time we began to think of albums as art on their own, as complete entities."[35][36] It was the final Beatles album that recording engineer Norman Smith worked on before being promoted by EMI to record producer.[37] The sessions were held over thirteen days and totalled 113 hours, with a further seventeen hours (spread over six days) allowed for mixing.[33]

The Beatles interrupted the intensive recording for the album to receive their MBEs at Buckingham Palace. The band were forced to work to a tight deadline to ensure the album was completed in time for a pre-Christmas release.[18] They were nevertheless in the unfamiliar position of being able to dedicate themselves solely to a recording project, free of touring, filming and radio engagements.[4] The Beatles ceded to two interruptions during this time.[38] They received their MBEs at Buckingham Palace on 26 October, from Queen Elizabeth II,[39] and on 1–2 November, the band filmed their segments for The Music of Lennon & McCartney, a Granada Television tribute to the Lennon–McCartney songwriting partnership.[40][41] According to author Christopher Bray, this intensive recording made Rubber Soul not just unusual in the Beatles' career but "emphatically unlike those LPs made by other bands".[42] From 4 November – by which point only around half the required number of songs were near completion – the Beatles' sessions were routinely booked to finish at 3 am each day.[43]

After A Hard Day's Night in 1964, Rubber Soul was the second Beatles album to contain only original material.[44] As the band's main writers, Lennon and McCartney struggled to complete enough songs for the project.[5][45] After a session on 27 October was cancelled due to a lack of new material, Martin told a reporter that he and the group "hope to resume next week" but would not consider recording songs by any other composers.[46] The Beatles completed "Wait" for the album, having taped its rhythm track during the sessions for Help! in June 1965.[47] They also recorded the instrumental "12-Bar Original", a twelve-bar blues in the style of Booker T. & the M.G.'s.[48] Credited to Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Starr,[49] it remained unreleased until 1996.[50][nb 2]

The group recorded "Day Tripper" and "We Can Work It Out" during the Rubber Soul sessions for release as a single accompanying the album.[52] To avoid having to promote the single with numerous television appearances,[53][54] the Beatles chose to produce film clips for the two songs, the first time they had done so for a single.[55][56] Directed by Joe McGrath, the clips were filmed at Twickenham Film Studios in south-west London on 23 November.[57][58]

Studio aesthetic and sounds [On Rubber Soul] the Beatles demonstrated an ability to reach beyond the confines of acceptable rock and roll techniques and bring to the studio truly innovative ideas such as layering bass and fuzz-bass guitars, creating rhymes in different languages, mixing modes on a single song, utilizing tape manipulation to give instruments entirely new sounds, and introducing the sitar – a most unusual instrument for a rock band.[59]

– Music journalist Chris Smith Lennon recalled that Rubber Soul was the first album over which the Beatles took control in the studio and made demands rather than accept standard recording practices.[60] According to Riley, the album reflects "a new affection for recording" over live performance.[61] Author Philip Norman similarly writes that, with the Beatles increasingly drawn towards EMI's large cache of "exotic" musical instruments, combined with their readiness to incorporate "every possible resource of the studio itself" and Martin's skills as a classical arranger, "Implicitly, from the very start, this [music] was not stuff intended to be played live on stage."[28]

According to Barry Miles, a leading figure in the UK underground whom Lennon and McCartney befriended at this time, Rubber Soul and its 1966 follow-up, Revolver, were "when [the Beatles] got away from George Martin, and became a creative entity unto themselves".[62] In 1995, Harrison said that Rubber Soul was his favourite Beatles album, adding: "we certainly knew we were making a good album. We did spend more time on it and tried new things. But the most important thing about it was that we were suddenly hearing sounds that we weren't able to hear before."[18][16]

During the sessions, McCartney played a solid-body Rickenbacker 4001 bass guitar, which produced a fuller sound than his hollow-body Hofner.[63][64] The Rickenbacker's design allowed for greater melodic precision, a characteristic that led McCartney to contribute more intricate bass lines.[63] Harrison used a Fender Stratocaster for the first time, most notably in his lead guitar part on "Nowhere Man".[65] The variety in guitar tones throughout the album was also aided by Harrison and Lennon's use of capos, such as in the high-register parts on "If I Needed Someone" and "Girl".[63]

A sitar (top) and a Mannborg harmonium. Along with fuzz bass and varispeed-treated piano, these instruments were among the unusual sounds the band used for the first time during the Rubber Soul sessions. On Rubber Soul, the Beatles departed from standard rock and roll instrumentation,[1] particularly in Harrison's use of the Indian sitar on "Norwegian Wood".[59] Having been introduced to the string instrument on the set of the 1965 film Help!, Harrison's interest was fuelled by fellow Indian music fans Roger McGuinn and David Crosby of the Byrds, partway through the Beatles' US tour.[66][nb 3] Music journalist Paul Du Noyer describes the sitar part as "simply a sign of the whole band's hunger for new musical colours", but also "the pivotal moment of Rubber Soul".[68] The Beatles also made use of harmonium during the sessions,[69][70] marking that instrument's introduction into rock music.[71]

The band's willingness to experiment with sound was further demonstrated in McCartney playing fuzz bass on "Think for Yourself"[72] over his standard bass part,[73] and their employing a piano made to sound like a baroque harpsichord on "In My Life".[74] The latter effect came about when, in response to Lennon suggesting he play something "like Bach",[75] Martin recorded the piano solo with the tape running at half-speed;[76] when played back at normal speed, the sped-up sound gave the illusion of a harpsichord.[77] In this way, the Beatles used the recording studio as a musical instrument, an approach that they and Martin developed further with Revolver.[78][79] In Prendergast's description, "bright ethnic percussion" was among the other "great sounds" that filled the album.[80]

Lennon, McCartney and Harrison's three-part harmony singing was another musical detail that came to typify the Rubber Soul sound.[69][81] According to musicologist Walter Everett, some of the vocal arrangements feature the same "pantonal planing of three-part root-position triads" adopted by the Byrds, who had initially based their harmonies on the style used by the Beatles and other British Invasion bands.[82] Riley says that the Beatles softened their music on Rubber Soul, yet by reverting to slower tempos they "draw attention to how much rhythm can do".[83] Wide separation in the stereo image ensured that subtleties in the musical arrangements were heard; in Riley's description, this quality emphasised the "richly textured" arrangements over "everything being stirred together into one high-velocity mass".[84][nb 4]

McCartney said that as part of their increased involvement in the album's production, the band members attended the mixing sessions rather than let Martin work in their absence.[20] Until late in their career, the "primary" version of the Beatles' albums was always the monophonic mix. According to Beatles historian Bruce Spizer, Martin and the EMI engineers devoted most of their time and attention to the mono mixdowns, and generally regarded stereo as a gimmick. The band were not usually present for the stereo mixing sessions.[86]

Band dynamics While Martin recalled the sessions as having been "a very joyful time",[87] Smith felt "something had happened between Help! and Rubber Soul", and the family atmosphere that had once characterised the relationship between the Beatles and their production team was absent.[88] He said the project revealed the first signs of artistic conflict between Lennon and McCartney,[89] and friction within the band as more effort was spent on perfecting each song.[88][nb 5] This also manifested in a struggle over which song should be the A-side of their next single, with Lennon insisting on "Day Tripper" (of which he was the primary writer)[92] and publicly contradicting EMI's announcement about the upcoming release.[93]

In addition, a rift was growing between McCartney and his bandmates as he continued to abstain from taking LSD.[94][95] The revelations provided by the drug had drawn Lennon and Harrison closer,[94][96] and were then shared by Starr when, during the band's stay in Los Angeles that August, he had agreed to try LSD for the first time.[97]

Songs Overview Pop historian Andrew Grant Jackson describes Rubber Soul as a "synthesis of folk, rock, soul, baroque, proto-psychedelia, and the sitar".[98] According to author Joe Harrington, the album contained the Beatles' first "psychedelic experiments", heralding the transformational effect of LSD on many of the original British Invasion acts.[99] Author Bernard Gendron dismisses the commonly held view that Rubber Soul is a folk rock album; he cites its incorporation of baroque and Eastern sounds as examples of the Beatles' "nascent experimentalism and eclectic power of appropriation", aspects that he says suggest an artistic approach that transcends the genre.[100][nb 6] According to The Encyclopedia of Country Music, building on the Beatles' 1964 track "I Don't Want to Spoil the Party", the album can be seen in retrospect as an early example of country rock, anticipating the Byrds' Sweetheart of the Rodeo album.[101]

Further to Lennon's more introspective outlook in 1964, particularly on Beatles for Sale, the lyrics on Rubber Soul represent a pronounced development in sophistication, thoughtfulness and ambiguity.[102] According to music critic Greil Marcus, "the Beatles were still writing about love, but this was a new kind of love: contingent, scary and vital", and so, while the music was "seduction, not assault", the "emotional touch" was tougher than before.[103] Author James Decker considers it significant that Rubber Soul "took its narrative cues more from folk crossovers such as Bob Dylan and the Byrds than from the Beatles' pop cohorts".[104] In particular, the relationships between the sexes moved from simpler boy-girl love songs to more nuanced and negative portrayals.[105] In this way, Lennon and McCartney offered candid insights into their respective personal lives.[106]

Side one "Drive My Car"

"Drive My Car" 0:14 The chorus of "Drive My Car" Problems playing this file? See media help. The album opens with a pair of lead guitar parts that are soon rendered off-metre by the arrival of McCartney's bass.[84] "Drive My Car" is a McCartney composition with substantial contribution from Lennon with the lyrics.[107][108] Harrison, as the Beatles' most knowledgeable soul-music enthusiast, contributed heavily to the recording by suggesting they arrange the song with a dual guitar–bass riff in the style of Otis Redding's contemporary single "Respect".[109] In their joint lead vocals, McCartney and Lennon sing dissonant harmonies,[110] a quality that is furthered by Harrison's entrance and signifies what Everett terms a "new jazzy sophistication … in the vocal arrangement".[111]

The lyrics convey an actress's desire to become a film star and her promise to the narrator that he can be her chauffeur.[112] According to Riley, the song satirises the "ethics of materialism" and serves as a "parody of the Beatles' celebrity status and the status-seekers they meet".[113] Author and critic Kenneth Womack describes the lyrics as being "loaded with sexual innuendo", and he says that the female protagonist challenged the gendered expectations of a mid-1960s pop audience, as an "everywoman" with ego and a clear agenda.[114]

"Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)" Lennon said he wrote "Norwegian Wood" about an extramarital affair and that he worded the narrative to hide the truth from his wife, Cynthia.[115] The lyrics sketch a failed meeting between the singer and a mysterious girl, where she goes to bed and he sleeps in the bath;[116] in retaliation at the girl's aloofness, the singer decides to burn down her pine-panelled home.[117][nb 7] Arranged in 12/8 time,[119] and in the English folk style, the song has a Mixolydian melody that results in a drone effect in the acoustic guitars, complementing the sitar part, though switches to parallel scale of E Dorian during its middle eight.[120] The narrative draws heavily on Dylan's style through its use of ambiguity.[116][121] In author Jonathan Gould's description, the song is an "emotional black comedy",[110] while Decker recognises it as a continuation of the "interrogation of sexual ambiguities" and "muddled sense of power" displayed in "Drive My Car".[122]

"You Won't See Me" Written by McCartney, "You Won't See Me" reflects the difficulties he was experiencing in his relationship with actress Jane Asher due to her refusal to put her acting career second to his needs.[123][124] Gould identifies the song as the third consecutive track in which the narrative conveys miscommunication.[125] McCartney described its music as "very Motown-flavored", with a "feel" inspired by Motown bassist James Jamerson.[126] The verses use the same chord sequence as the Four Tops' hit "It's the Same Old Song",[127] which was titled by its writers, the Holland–Dozier–Holland team, in acknowledgement that they had already used the same pattern in their composition "I Can't Help Myself".[123]

"Nowhere Man"

"Nowhere Man" 0:18 Sample from "Nowhere Man" Problems playing this file? See media help. Lennon recalled that "Nowhere Man" came to him fully formed one night at his home in Surrey,[128] after he had struggled to write anything for several hours.[115][129] The song reflects the existential concerns raised by his experiences with LSD, and, like "I'm a Loser" and "Help!", his self-loathing[130] during a time he later called his "fat Elvis period".[131] It was the first Beatles song to completely avoid boy–girl relationships,[112][132] and through Lennon conveying his feelings of inadequacy in the third person,[133] the first example of a literary character in the Beatles' work.[134] Riley views the message as a precursor to the "I'd love to turn you on" theme of "A Day in the Life" and, aided by the band's performance, optimistic in tone as Lennon "sings for the unsung, the people who have shut themselves off from life".[135]

Heavy equalisation was applied to the electric guitar parts through a series of faders,[136] giving them a treble-rich texture that, as with the harmony vocals,[115] recalls the Byrds' sound.[137] In Prendergast's description, the track "burst[s] forth with all the gusto of newly discovered psychedelia", as Lennon's lead vocal "luxuriates in an opiated haze of production and Harrison's Fender Stratocaster solo fuzzes with all the right hallucinatory sparkle".[138]

"Think for Yourself" Harrison's lyrics to "Think for Yourself" suggest the influence of Dylan's September 1965 single "Positively 4th Street", as Harrison appears to rebuke a friend or lover.[139] The song's accusatory message was unprecedented in the Beatles' work;[139] Jackson identifies it as the band's contribution to a "subgenre" of protest songs that emerged in 1965, in which artists railed against "oppressive conformity itself" rather than political issues.[140] Everett describes the composition as "a tour de force of altered scale degrees". He adds that, such is the ambiguity throughout, "its tonal quality forms the perfect conspirator with the text's and the rhythm's hesitations and unexpected turns."[141] Gould writes that, in its dialogue with Harrison's vocal, McCartney's fuzz bass suggests "the snarls of an enraged schnauzer, snapping and striking at its lead".[142]

"The Word" ["The Word" is] all about gettin' smart. It's the marijuana period ... it's the love-and-peace thing. The word is "love," right? It seems like the underlying theme to the universe. Everything that was worthwhile got down to this one, love, love thing.[143]

– John Lennon In his book 1965: The Year Modern Britain Was Born, Bray recognises "The Word" as marking the start of the Beatles' "high psychedelic period".[144] Lennon's exhortation that "The word is love" anticipates the ethos behind the counterculture's 1967 Summer of Love.[145] The lyrics focus on the concept of universal love as a path to spiritual enlightenment, with what Decker terms "proselytizing zeal" on the narrator's part.[146] Author Ian MacDonald recognises the "distant influence" of Wilson Pickett's "In the Midnight Hour" and James Brown's "Papa's Got a Brand New Bag" on the song's rhythm, and highlights Starr's drumming (for its "feast of eccentric 'backwards fills'") and McCartney's dextrous bass playing.[123] The arrangement also includes seven vocal parts and Martin playing suspended chords on harmonium.[126]

"Michelle" "Michelle" was conceived by McCartney in the late 1950s. During a writing session for Rubber Soul, Lennon added a new middle eight, part of which was taken from Nina Simone's recent cover of "I Put a Spell on You".[147] MacDonald identifies the song as another example of the Beatles' "comedy song" approach, which, in a contemporary interview, McCartney had suggested was a possible new direction for the group.[148] In Womack's view, the French phrases in the lyrics accentuate the premise whereby a language barrier separates two lovers, and the narrative conveys an acceptance that their relationship is doomed to fail, such that the singer is already looking back nostalgically at what could have been.[149] Gould describes the performance as "sentimental … French cabaret" which, following McCartney's declaration of "I love you", leads into a guitar solo by Harrison that represents "one of Jean-Paul Sartre's existential café workers".[150]

Side two "What Goes On" The Beatles had attempted to record an early version of Lennon's "What Goes On" in 1963.[151][152] With little time to complete Rubber Soul, the song was reworked by Lennon and McCartney as a vocal spot for Starr,[153] who also received his first songwriting credit, as co-composer.[154] The song is in the country style favoured by Starr,[154] and in its lyrics the singer laments his lover's deceit.[64][155] In Everett's description, the arrangement includes Harrison's rockabilly-inflected lead guitar, played on his Gretsch Tennessean, contrasting with Lennon's "Steve Cropper-styled Memphis 'chick' rhythm part".[156]

"Girl" Lennon said he wrote "Girl" about an archetypal woman he had been searching for and would finally find in Yoko Ono,[154][157] the Japanese artist he met in November 1966.[158] In the lyrics, he also expresses his disdain for Christian moral values.[154] The song was the final track recorded for the album.[157] The composition incorporates aspects of Greek folk music,[159] while the arrangement includes an instrumental passage set as a German two-step[160] and an acoustic guitar part played to sound like a Greek bouzouki.[161][nb 8] High equalisation was applied to Lennon's vocal over the choruses to capture the hissing sound as he drew breath[162] – an effect that also suggested he was inhaling on a marijuana joint.[163][164] McCartney recalled that he and Harrison sang "Tit-tit-tit" on the middle eights to capture the "innocence" of the Beach Boys singing "La-la-la" on one of their recent songs.[165] Riley likens the musical arrangement to a "scene from the old world" and he concludes of the song: "The old-fashioned atmosphere conveys desire and deception, and Lennon sings it as much to console himself as to make sense of its bewildering proportions ('And she promises the earth to me and I believe her/After all this time I don't know why'). It's the sympathetic side of the anger in 'Norwegian Wood.'"[166]

"I'm Looking Through You" Like "You Won't See Me" and "We Can Work It Out", "I'm Looking Through You" focuses on McCartney's troubled relationship with Asher.[167] Gould describes it as the "disillusioned sequel" to McCartney's other 1965 songs centring on "a face-to-face (if not necessarily eye-to-eye) encounter between two lovers".[151] Decker likens the lyrics to a less philosophical version of "Think for Yourself" in which "the narrator has grown, yet the woman has failed to keep up."[168] The composition contrasts acoustic-based verses with harsher, R&B-style instrumental sections,[169] suggesting a combination of the folk rock and soul styles.[147] The Beatles had taped two versions of the song before achieving the final version,[170] which they recorded during the last, frantic day of the Rubber Soul sessions. In its final form, the song gained a middle eight where previously there had been a twelve-bar blues jam.[171][nb 9]

"In My Life"

"In My Life" 0:27 Sample from "In My Life", including a portion of the piano solo Problems playing this file? See media help. Lennon credited a remark made by BBC journalist Kenneth Allsop, who had asked why his songs appeared to lack the wordplay and childhood focus evident in his 1964 book In His Own Write, as the catalyst for "In My Life".[172] Lennon considered the song to be his "first real major piece of work".[69] The lyrics evoke his youth in Liverpool and reflect his nostalgia for a time before the onset of international fame.[154] McCartney recalled writing the melody on his own and said that the song's musical inspiration came from Smokey Robinson and the Miracles;[172][173] according to Lennon, McCartney merely assisted in writing what he called "the middle-eight melody".[174] In Gould's description, "In My Life" "owed a conscious debt" to the Miracles' contemporary hit "The Tracks of My Tears" and thereby served as "the most recent installment in the lively cultural exchange between Motown's Hitsville Studios and EMI's Abbey Road".[175][nb 10]

Martin's Bach-inspired piano solo was overdubbed in the Beatles' absence,[176] over a section that they had left empty.[177] Womack says that the baroque aspect of this contribution furthers the song's nostalgic qualities,[178] a point also made by Gould, who adds that, by revisiting the past and presenting emotional themes that are resolved in the narrative, "In My Life" serves as the album's only song that "sounds the Beatles' original ground theme of happiness-in-relationship".[179]

"Wait" "Wait" was a Lennon composition to which McCartney contributed a middle eight.[162][180] Gould includes the song among a category of Beatles "'coming home' songs",[179] while Riley pairs it with "It Won't Be Long" but adds that, relative to that 1963 song, in "Wait" "the lovers' reunion has more anxiety than euphoria goading the beat."[180] The band completed the track on the final day of recording for the album, overdubbing tone-pedal lead guitar, percussion[181] and a new vocal by McCartney onto the June 1965 rhythm track.[182] MacDonald writes that, although Lennon and McCartney would most likely have viewed the subject matter as dated even in June, the group's performance gives the song the required "drive and character" for Rubber Soul, particularly Starr's approach to the rhythm changes between its contrasting sections.[183]

"If I Needed Someone" Harrison wrote "If I Needed Someone" as a love song to Pattie Boyd, the English model to whom he became engaged in December 1965 and married the following month.[184] In the song's Rickenbacker 12-string guitar riff, the Beatles returned the compliment paid to them earlier in 1965 by the Byrds,[185][186] whose jangly guitar-based sound McGuinn had sourced from Harrison's playing the previous year.[179][187] In MacDonald's view, the song is influenced "far more" by Indian classical music than by the Byrds, through Harrison's partly Mixolydian melody and the presence of drone.[188] The latter aspect is furthered by McCartney's arpeggiated bass line in A major continuing over the chord change to a ♭VII triad.[189]

The detached, dispassionate tone in the lyrics has invited alternative interpretations. Gould refers to it as "a rueful rain check of a love song" directed to the "right person at the wrong time";[190] according to Jackson, "the lyrics address all the women of the world, saying that had he met them earlier [before committing to Boyd], it might have worked out, but now he was too much in love (but give me your number just in case)."[191]

"Run for Your Life" Lennon wrote "Run for Your Life" based on "Baby Let's Play House",[192] which was one of Presley's early singles on the Sun record label.[154] Lennon retained a line from the Presley track – "I'd rather see you dead, little girl, than to be with another man".[154][193] The lyrical theme is jealousy,[194] betraying an overtly misogynistic quality that Decker finds at odds with the Beatles' approach to making the album.[195][nb 11] Performed in the country style,[193] it was the first track recorded for the album and features a descending guitar riff played by Harrison and slide guitar parts.[197]

North American format Adhering to the company's policy for the Beatles' albums in the United States, Capitol Records altered the content of Rubber Soul for its release there.[198][199] They removed "Drive My Car", "Nowhere Man", "What Goes On" and "If I Needed Someone", all of which were instead issued on the Beatles' next North American album, Yesterday and Today, in June 1966.[200] The four songs were replaced with "I've Just Seen a Face" and "It's Only Love",[201] which had been cut from Help! as part of Capitol's reconfiguring of that LP to serve as a true soundtrack album, consisting of Beatles songs and orchestral music from the film.[202]

Through the mix of predominantly acoustic-based songs, according to Womack, the North American release "takes on a decidedly folk-ish orientation".[203] Capitol sequenced "I've Just Seen a Face" as the opening track, reflecting the company's attempt to present Rubber Soul as a folk-rock album,[204][205] and "It's Only Love" opened side two.[206][nb 12] Gould writes that the omission of songs such as "Drive My Car" provided a "misleading idea" of the Beatles' musical direction and "turned the album title into an even more obscure joke", since the result was the band's least soul- or R&B-influenced album up to this point.[208] The stereo mixes used by Capitol contained two false starts at the beginning of "I'm Looking Through You",[203] while "The Word" also differed from the UK version due to the double-tracking of Lennon's lead vocal, the addition of an extra falsetto harmony, and the panning treatment given to one of the percussion parts.[209]

Title and artwork The album title was intended as a pun combining the falseness intrinsic to pop music and rubber-soled shoes.[42] Lennon said the title was McCartney's idea and referred to "English soul".[30] In a 1966 press conference, Starr said they called the album Rubber Soul to acknowledge that, in comparison to American soul artists, "we are white and haven't got what they've got", and he added that this was true of all the British acts who attempted to play soul music.[210] McCartney recalled that he conceived the title after overhearing an American musician describing Mick Jagger's singing style as "plastic soul".[30][nb 13] In Phillip Norman's view, the title served as "a sly dig at their archrivals (and private best mates) the Rolling Stones", with the added implication that the Beatles' "variety" of soul music "at least was stamped out by a good strong northern [English] Wellington boot".[213]

Rubber Soul was the group's first album not to feature their name on the cover,[214][215] an omission that reflected the level of control they had over their releases and the extent of their international fame.[216][217][nb 14] The cover photo of the Beatles was taken by photographer Robert Freeman in the garden at Lennon's house.[192] The idea for the "stretched" effect of the image came about by accident when Freeman was projecting the photo onto an LP-size piece of cardboard for the Beatles' benefit, and the board fell slightly backwards, elongating the projected image.[87][220][nb 15] Harrison said the effect was appropriate since it allowed the group to lose "the 'little innocents' tag, the naivety" and it was in keeping with their emergence as "fully fledged potheads".[221] Author Peter Doggett highlights the cover as an example of the Beatles, like Dylan and the Stones, "continu[ing] to test the limits of the portrait" in their LP designs.[222]

The distinctive lettering was created by illustrator Charles Front,[223] who recalled that his inspiration was the album's title: "If you tap into a rubber tree then you get a sort of globule, so I started thinking of creating a shape that represented that, starting narrow and filling out."[224] The rounded letters used on the sleeve established a style that became ubiquitous in psychedelic designs[223] and, according to journalist Lisa Bachelor, "a staple of poster art for the flower power generation".[224]

Release

The Beatles performed at the Liverpool Empire during their December 1965 UK tour. The shows there marked the group's final concerts in their hometown.[225] EMI's Parlophone label issued Rubber Soul on 3 December 1965.[37][226] The "Day Tripper" / "We Can Work It Out" single was also released that day[227] and was the first example of a double A-side single in Britain.[228] EMI announced that it had pressed 750,000 copies of the LP to cater to local demand.[229] Its advance orders of 500,000 almost equalled the total sales for the new single and were described by the Daily Mirror's show business reporter as marking a new record for pre-release orders for an LP.[230]

On the day of the album's release, the Beatles performed at the Odeon Cinema in Glasgow,[231] marking the start of what would be their final UK tour.[232] Weary of Beatlemania, the group had conceded to do a short tour, although they refused to reprise their Christmas Show from the 1963–64 and 1964–65 holiday seasons.[57][233] They performed both sides of the single throughout the tour, but only "If I Needed Someone" and "Nowhere Man" from the new album.[234] In the United States, Rubber Soul was their tenth album[235] and their first to consist entirely of original songs.[236] The release took place there on 6 December.[206]

For most American teens, the arrival of the Beatles' "Rubber Soul" ... was unsettling. Instead of cheerleading for love, the album's songs held cryptic messages about thinking for yourself, the hypnotic power of women, something called "getting high" and bedding down with the opposite sex. Clearly, growing up wasn't going to be easy.[237]

– Historian Marc Myers In an interview following the album's release, McCartney said that although people had "always wanted us to stay the same", he saw no reason for the Beatles to pander to such limitations, adding, "Rubber Soul for me is the beginning of my adult life."[238] Lennon commented, "You don't know us if you don’t know Rubber Soul."[239]

According to Beatles biographer Nicholas Schaffner, Freeman's cover photo was viewed as "daringly surreal" and led some fans to write to the band's official fanzine, Beatles Monthly, alarmed that the image "made their heroes look like corpses".[216] In her study of the Beatles' contemporary audience, sociologist Candy Leonard writes that some young listeners were challenged by the band's new musical direction, but "With Rubber Soul, the Beatles came to occupy a role in fans' lives and a place in their psyches that was different from any previous fan–performer relationship."[240] Singer-songwriter Elvis Costello, who was an eleven-year-old fan at the time,[9] later recalled thinking that the band had "lost their minds". He added: "I didn't understand a word, I didn't think it was any good, and then six weeks later you couldn't live without the record. And that's good – that's when you trust the people who make music to take you somewhere you haven't been before."[241]

Commercial performance Rubber Soul began its 42-week run on the Record Retailer LPs chart (subsequently adopted as the UK Albums Chart) on 12 December 1965.[242] The following week it replaced the Sound of Music soundtrack at the top of the chart,[243] where it remained for eight weeks in total.[242] On the national chart compiled by Melody Maker, Rubber Soul entered at number 1 and held the position for thirteen weeks; it remained in the top ten until mid July 1966.[244][nb 16] In the United States, Rubber Soul topped the Billboard Top LPs chart on 8 January 1966,[248] having sold 1.2 million copies there within nine days of release.[249][250] These initial sales were unprecedented for an LP[251][252] and were cited by Billboard magazine as evidence of a new market trend in the US in which pop albums started to match the numbers of singles sold.[253] The album was number 1 for six weeks in total; it remained in the top twenty until the start of July, before leaving the chart in mid December.[254] As the more popular of the joint A-sides, "We Can Work It Out" became the Beatles' sixth consecutive number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, all of which were achieved over a twelve-month period from January 1965.[255][nb 17]

While British albums typically avoided including previously released songs,[256] the lack of a hit single on the North American version of Rubber Soul added to the album's identity there as a self-contained artistic statement.[257] Everett writes that in the US the album's "hit" was "Michelle", through its popularity on radio playlists.[258] After their inclusion on the EMI-format LP, "Norwegian Wood", "Nowhere Man" and "Michelle" were each issued as singles in various markets outside Britain and America,[259] with "Norwegian Wood" topping the Australian chart in May 1966.[260] "Nowhere Man"'s first release in North America was as a single A-side,[112] backed by "What Goes On", in February, before both tracks appeared on Yesterday and Today.[261][262] "Nowhere Man" topped Record World's singles chart in the US[263] and Canada's RPM 100 chart,[264] but peaked at number 3 on the Billboard Hot 100.[265][nb 18] In July, Parlophone released an EP titled Nowhere Man,[266] which contained "Nowhere Man", "Michelle" and two other songs from Rubber Soul.[267]

The album was also the source of hit songs for several other contemporary artists.[266] "Michelle" became one of the most widely recorded of all the Beatles' songs.[268] Cover versions of "Girl", "If I Needed Someone" and "Nowhere Man" similarly placed on UK or US singles charts in 1966.[266]

In the UK, Rubber Soul was the third highest-selling album of 1965, behind The Sound of Music and Beatles for Sale,[269] and the third highest-selling album of 1966, behind The Sound of Music and Revolver.[270] The extent of its commercial success there surprised the music industry, which had sought to re-establish the LP market as the domain of adult record-buyers. From early 1966, record companies in the UK ceased their policy of promoting adult-oriented entertainers over rock acts, and embraced budget albums for their lower-selling artists to cater to the increased demand for LPs.[271] In the US, Rubber Soul was the fourth highest-selling album of 1966, as reported in Billboard.[272] According to figures published in 2009 by former Capitol executive David Kronemyer, further to estimates he gave in MuseWire magazine,[273] Rubber Soul sold 1,800,376 copies in America by the end of 1965 and 2,766,862 by the close of the decade.[250] As of 1997, it had shipped over 6 million copies there.[274] In 2013, after the British Phonographic Industry altered its sales award protocol, the album was certified Platinum based on UK sales since 1994.[275]

Critical reception Contemporary reviews Critical response to Rubber Soul was highly favourable.[276] Allen Evans of the NME wrote that the band were "still finding different ways to make us enjoy listening to them" and described the LP as "a fine piece of recording artistry and adventure in group sound".[277][278] While outlining to American readers the differences in the UK-format release, KRLA Beat said Rubber Soul was an "unbelievably sensational" work on which the Beatles were "once again ... setting trends in this world of pop".[279] Newsweek lauded the Beatles as "the Bards of Pop",[280] saying that the album's combination of "gospel, country, baroque counterpoint and even French popular ballads" lent the band a unique style in which their songs were "as brilliantly original as any written today".[281] Like Newsweek, The New York Times had belittled the group when they first performed in America in February 1964, but following the release of Rubber Soul, entertainment critic Jack Gould wrote an effusive tribute in the newspaper's Sunday magazine.[282] In HiFi/Stereo Review, Morgan Ames wrote that, like other supportive professional musicians, he recognised the devices the band employed as "they tromp on the art of music", and while he viewed their formal musicality as limited, he expressed joy at its effectiveness. Having opened the review by saying, "The Beatles sound more and more like music", he concluded of the album: "Their blend is excellent, their performance smooth, and their charm, wit and excitement run high."[283]

The writers of Record Mirror's initial review found the LP lacking some of the variety of the group's previous releases but also said: "one marvels and wonders at the constant stream of melodic ingenuity stemming from the boys, both as performers and composers. Keeping up their pace of creativeness is quite fantastic."[284] By contrast, Richard Green wrote in the same magazine that most of the album "if recorded by anyone but the Beatles, would not be worthy of release", with many of the tracks devoid of "the old Beatles excitement and compulsiveness". Green acknowledged that his was an unpopular opinion, before stating: "Judging LPs strictly on their merits, recent albums from Manfred Mann, the Beach Boys and Jerry Lee Lewis rank high above Rubber Soul."[285]

In another review that Richard Williams later cited as an example of the British pop press not being "quite ready" for the album, Melody Maker found the Beatles' new sound "a little subdued" and said that tracks such as "You Won't See Me" and "Nowhere Man" "almost get monotonous – an un-Beatle-like feature if ever there was one".[286] Author Steve Turner also highlights the comments made by the Melody Maker and Record Mirror reviewers, who were typically aged over 30, as indicative of how UK pop journalists lacked "the critical vocabulary" and "the broad musical perspective" to recognise or engage with progressive music.[287] Turner adds that Rubber Soul "may have perplexed the old guard of entertainment correspondents, but it was a beacon for fledgling rock critics (as they would soon be called)".[251]

In a September 1966 review of Revolver, KRLA Beat said that the title of Rubber Soul had "become a standard phrase used to describe a creation of exceptional excellence in the field of music", such that several highly regarded releases had since earned the description "a 'Rubber Soul in its field'".[288][nb 19] Writing in Esquire in 1967, Robert Christgau called it "an album that for innovation, tightness, and lyrical intelligence was about twice as good as anything they or anyone else (except maybe the Stones) had done previously".[290]

Retrospective assessment Professional ratings Review scores Source Rating AllMusic [1] Blender [291] Consequence of Sound A+[292] The Daily Telegraph [293] Encyclopedia of Popular Music [294] MusicHound Rock 4/5[295] Paste 97/100[296] Pitchfork 10/10[297] Q [298] The Rolling Stone Album Guide [299] According to Decker, notwithstanding the band's advances in 1964, music critics generally view Rubber Soul as the Beatles' "'transitional' album … from successful pop act to unparalleled masters of the studio".[104] It is frequently cited by commentators as the first of their "classic" albums.[300] Greil Marcus described it as the best of all the band's LPs.[301] In his 1979 essay on the Beatles in The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock & Roll, Marcus wrote: "Rubber Soul was an album made as an album; with the exception of 'Michelle' (which, to be fair, paid the bills for years to come), every cut was an inspiration, something new and remarkable in and of itself."[302][nb 20]

Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph wrote in 2009: "this is where things start to get very interesting ... Rubber Soul is the result of their first extended period in the studio. The production is open and spacious, adorned but not yet overcrowded with new instruments and ideas. The songs themselves are like little Pop Art vignettes, where the lyrics are starting to match the quality of the melodies and arrangements."[304] Scott Plagenhoef of Pitchfork describes the album as "the most important artistic leap in the Beatles' career – the signpost that signaled a shift away from Beatlemania and the heavy demands of teen pop, toward more introspective, adult subject matter".[297] Paul Du Noyer wrote in his review for Blender in 2004: "Their talent was already a source of wonder, but now the songs themselves were turning mysterious. Under the influence of Bob Dylan – and, it might be said, marijuana – the Fab Four laced their tunefulness with new introspection, wordplay and social comment. University professors and newspaper columnists started taking note."[291]

Writing in Paste, Mark Kemp says that the influence of Dylan and the Byrds seems overt at times but the album marks the start of the Beatles' peak in creativity and, in the context of 1965, offered "an unprecedented synthesis of elements from folk-rock and beyond".[296] According to Richie Unterberger of AllMusic, the album's lyrics represented "a quantum leap in terms of thoughtfulness, maturity, and complex ambiguities", while the music was similarly progressive in its use of sounds beyond "the conventional instrumental parameters of the rock group". He adds that Rubber Soul is "full of great tunes" from Lennon and McCartney notwithstanding their divergence from a common style, and demonstrates that Harrison "was also developing into a fine songwriter".[1] Writing in the Encyclopedia of Popular Music, Colin Larkin describes it as "not a collection of would-be hits or favourite cover versions … but a startlingly diverse collection, ranging from the pointed satire of 'Nowhere Man' to the intensely reflective 'In My Life'."[305] In the 2004 edition of The Rolling Stone Album Guide, Rob Sheffield recognises Help! as "the first chapter in the [Beatles'] astounding creative takeoff", after which the band "grew up with an album of bittersweet romance, singing adult love ballads that feel worldly but not jaded".[306]

In an article coinciding with the 50th anniversary of its release, for The Guardian, Bob Stanley lamented that Rubber Soul was often overlooked in appraisals of the Beatles' recording career, whereas Revolver and The Beatles had each gained in stature to surpass Sgt. Pepper. Stanley highlighted Rubber Soul as having been "a good 18 months ahead of its time" and "the first album of the rock era that sounded like an album".[307] Also writing in December 2015, in Rolling Stone, Sheffield especially admired the singing and the modern qualities of the female characters depicted in the lyrics. He said that the album was "way ahead of what anyone had done before" and, given the short period in which they had to record, he called it the Beatles' "accidental masterpiece".[308]

Conversely, Jon Friedman of Esquire finds the work vastly overrated, with only the Lennon-dominated songs "Norwegian Wood", "Nowhere Man", "In My Life" and "Girl" worthy of praise, and he dismisses it as "dull" and "the Beatles' most inconsequential album".[309] Although he considers that McCartney "comes off third-string" to Lennon and Harrison, Plagenhoef defends the album's subtle mood; highlighting the influence of cannabis on the Beatles throughout 1965, he writes: "With its patient pace and languid tones, Rubber Soul is an altogether much more mellow record than anything the Beatles had done before, or would do again. It's a fitting product from a quartet just beginning to explore their inner selves on record."[297] In his review for Rough Guides, Chris Ingham highlights the musical arrangements, three-part harmonies and judicious use of new sounds, in addition to the band's improved musicianship and songwriting. He says that Rubber Soul usually trails the Beatles' next four albums in critics' assessments of their work, yet "it's undoubtedly their pre-acid, pre-antagonism masterpiece: beat music as high art".[106][nb 21]

Influence and legacy Rivals' response See also: Album era It was the most out-there music they'd ever made, but also their warmest, friendliest and most emotionally direct. As soon as it dropped in December 1965, Rubber Soul cut the story of pop music in half – we're all living in the future this album invented. Now as then, every pop artist wants to make a Rubber Soul of their own.[308]

– Rob Sheffield, 2015 Music historian Bill Martin says that the release of Rubber Soul was a "turning point" for pop music, in that for the first time "the album rather than the song became the basic unit of artistic production."[311] In author David Howard's description, "pop's stakes had been raised into the stratosphere" by Rubber Soul, resulting in a shift in focus from singles to creating albums without the usual filler tracks.[312] The release marked the start of a period when other artists, in an attempt to emulate the Beatles' achievement, sought to create albums as works of artistic merit[312][313] and with increasingly novel sounds.[314] According to Steve Turner, by galvanising the Beatles' most ambitious rivals in Britain and America, Rubber Soul launched "the pop equivalent of an arms race".[315]

Brian Wilson of the Beach Boys described Rubber Soul as "the first album I listened to where every song was a gas" and planned his band's next project, Pet Sounds, as an attempt to surpass it.[316] Rubber Soul similarly inspired Pete Townshend of the Who and the Kinks' Ray Davies,[317] as well as Jagger and Keith Richards of the Rolling Stones, who issued their first album of all-original material, Aftermath, in April 1966.[313] The album was also an influence on Dylan, Stevie Wonder[237] and the Byrds.[9] John Cale recalled that Rubber Soul was an inspiration as he and Lou Reed developed their band the Velvet Underground. He said it was the first time "you were forced to deal with them as something other than a flash in the pan" and especially admired Harrison's introduction of Indian sounds.[318]

In his chapter on Rubber Soul in the Cambridge Companion to Music's volume on the Beatles, James Decker credits the album with effecting the "transformation" of 1960s pop.[15] In addition to citing it as the precedent for early experimental works by bands including Love and Jefferson Airplane, Decker writes that Rubber Soul presented "a variety of techniques hitherto unexplored in popular music" while encouraging listeners "to be cognizant of more flexible dimensions of pop music and to desire and expect them as well".[319] Music historian Simon Philo also sees it as heralding the experimentation that characterised late-1960s rock. He describes it as an album-length confirmation of the "transformation of pop's range and reach" that the Beatles had first achieved when "Yesterday", McCartney's introspective and classically orchestrated ballad, topped US singles charts in late 1965.[320] In a 1968 article on the Beach Boys, Gene Sculatti of Jazz & Pop recognised Rubber Soul as the model for Pet Sounds and Aftermath, as well as "the necessary prototype that no major rock group has been able to ignore".[321][nb 22]

Cultural legitimisation of pop music Rubber Soul is widely viewed as the first pop album to make an artistic statement through the quality of its songs,[322] a point that was reinforced by its artsy cover photo.[252] The belated acceptance of the Beatles by the editors of Newsweek was indicative of the magazine's recognition of the band's popularity among American intellectuals and the cultural elite.[323] This in turn was reflected in The Village Voice's appointment of Richard Goldstein, a recent graduate and New Journalism writer, to the new position of rock critic, in June 1966,[324] and the Beatles' central role in achieving cultural legitimisation for pop music over 1966–67.[325][nb 23] Referring to the praise afforded the band, particularly the Lennon–McCartney parternship, by Newsweek in early 1966, Michael Frontani writes: "The Beatles had a foothold in the world of art; in the months that followed, their efforts would lead to the full acceptance and legitimization of rock and roll as an art form."[329]

Paul Williams launched Crawdaddy! in February 1966 with the aim of reflecting the sophistication brought to the genre by Rubber Soul and Dylan's Bringing It All Back Home – the two albums that, in music journalist Barney Hoskyns' description, "arguably gave birth to 'rock' as a more solid concept than 'pop'".[330] According to Sculatti, Rubber Soul was "the definitive 'rock as art' album, revolutionary in that it was a completely successful creative endeavor integrating with precision all aspects of the creative (rock) process – composition of individual tracks done with extreme care, each track arranged appropriately to fit beside each other track, the symmetrical rock 'n' roll album".[321] Christopher Bray describes it as "the album that proved that rock and roll could be suitable for adult audiences", "the first long-playing pop record to really merit the term 'album'" and the LP that "turned pop music into high art".[331] Historian Marc Myers similarly credits it with "mark[ing] rock's shift from formulaic pop to studio experimentation and high art".[237]

According to Du Noyer, through Rubber Soul's blurring of the traditionally distinct dividing line between pop and high culture, and the perceived inferiority of singles, "a rift occurred [in the UK] between pop and rock". He quotes writer Nik Cohn's complaints that the "danger signs" for pop music's loss of innocence were apparent on Rubber Soul, and poet Philip Larkin's comment that "[The Beatles'] fans stayed with them, and the nuttier intelligentsia, but they lost the typists in the Cavern." Du Noyer says the album started a process that grew to become a "gulf between albums and singles, between rock or pop" that "shape[d] British music for decades".[9]

Development of subgenres

Jefferson Airplane performing in June 1967. Rubber Soul especially resonated with musicians in the emerging San Francisco scene. The album coincided with rock 'n' roll's development into a variety of new styles, a process in which the Beatles' influence ensured them a pre-eminent role.[99] Andrew Loog Oldham, the Rolling Stones' manager and producer at the time, has described Rubber Soul as "the album that changed the musical world we lived in then to the one we still live in today".[332][nb 24] "Norwegian Wood" launched what Indian classical musician Ravi Shankar called "the great sitar explosion",[333] as the Indian string instrument became a popular feature in raga rock[334][335] and for many pop artists seeking to add an exotic quality to their music.[336] The harpsichord-like solo on "In My Life" led to a wave of baroque rock recordings.[337][338] Rubber Soul was also the release that encouraged many folk-music aficionados to embrace pop.[208] Folk singer Roy Harper recalled: "They'd come onto my turf, got there before me, and they were kings of it, overnight. We'd all been outflanked ..."[318][nb 25]

Author George Case, writing in his book Out of Our Heads, identifies Rubber Soul as "the authentic beginning of the psychedelic era".[27] Music journalist Mark Ellen similarly credits the album with having "sow[ed] the seeds of psychedelia",[332] while Christgau says that "psychedelia starts here."[339][nb 26] Writing in The Sydney Morning Herald in July 1966, Lillian Roxon reported on the new trend for psychedelia-themed clubs and events in the US and said that Rubber Soul was "the classic psychedelic album now played at all the psychedelic discotheques". She attributed pop's recent embrace of psychedelia and "many of the strange new sounds now in records" to the LP's influence.[340]

In Myers' view, the Capitol release "changed the direction of American rock".[341] In the ongoing process of reciprocal influence between the band and US folk rock acts, the Beatles went on to inspire the San Francisco music scene.[339] Recalling the album's popularity in the Haight-Ashbury district of San Francisco, where Jefferson Airplane were based,[342] journalist Charles Perry said: "You could party hop all night and hear nothing but Rubber Soul."[343] Perry also wrote that "More than ever the Beatles were the soundtrack of the Haight-Ashbury, Berkeley and the whole circuit", where pre-hippie students suspected that the album was inspired by drugs.[344]

Citing a quantitative study of tempos in music from the 1960s, Walter Everett identifies Rubber Soul as a work that was "made more to be thought about than danced to", and an album that "began a far-reaching trend" in its slowing-down of the tempos typically used in pop and rock music.[345] While music historians typically credit Sgt. Pepper as the birth of progressive rock,[346] Everett and Bill Martin recognise Rubber Soul as the inspiration for many of the bands working in that genre from the early 1970s.[311][347][nb 27]

Appearances on best-album lists and further recognition Rubber Soul was voted fifth in Paul Gambaccini's 1978 book Critic's Choice: Top 200 Albums,[349] based on submissions from a panel of 47 critics and broadcasters including Richard Williams,[350] Christgau and Marcus.[351] In the first edition of Colin Larkin's book All Time Top 1000 Albums, in 1994, it was ranked at number 10,[352] and in 1998 it was voted the 39th greatest album of all time in the first "Music of the Millennium" poll,[353] conducted by HMV and Channel 4.[354] It was listed at number 34 in the third edition of Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums, published in 2000.[355][356]

Since 2001, Rubber Soul has appeared in critics' best-albums-of-all-time lists compiled by VH1 (at number 6),[357] Mojo (number 27) and Rolling Stone (number 5).[203] It was among Time magazine's selection of the "All-Time 100 Albums" in 2006[358] and was favoured over Revolver in Chris Smith's book 101 Albums That Changed Popular Music three years later.[359][360] In 2012, Rolling Stone again placed it at number 5 on the magazine's revised list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time".[72] In September 2020, Rubber Soul was ranked at number 35 on the same publication's new list.[361]

Rubber Soul appeared in Rolling Stone's 2014 list of the "40 Most Groundbreaking Albums of All Time", where the editors concluded: "You can say this represents 'maturity,' call it 'art' or credit it for moving rock away from singles to album-length statements – but regardless Rubber Soul accelerated popular music's creative arms race, driving competitors like the Stones, the Beach Boys and Dylan to dismantle expectations and create new ones."[362] Three years later, Pitchfork ranked it at number 46 on the website's "200 Best Albums of the 1960s". In his commentary with the entry, Ian Cohen wrote: "Every Beatles album fundamentally shaped how pop music is understood, so Rubber Soul is one of the most important records ever made, by default ... Even in 2017, whenever a pop singer makes a serious turn, or an anointed serious band says they've learned to embrace pop, Rubber Soul can't help but enter the conversation."[363]

In 2000, Rubber Soul was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame,[249] an award bestowed by the American Recording Academy "to honor recordings of lasting qualitative or historical significance that are at least 25 years old".[364] The album has been the subject of multi-artist tribute albums such as This Bird Has Flown and Rubber Folk.[203] Writing in December 2015, Ilan Mochari of Inc. magazine commented on the unusual aspect of a pop album's 50th anniversary being celebrated, and added: "Over the next several years, you can bet you'll read about the 50th anniversary of many other albums – thematic volumes composed by bands or songwriters in the tradition Rubber Soul established. All of which is to say: Rubber Soul, the Beatles' sixth studio album, was the record that launched a thousand ships."[341]

Compact disc reissues Rubber Soul was first released on compact disc on 30 April 1987,[365] with the fourteen-song UK track line-up now the international standard.[235] As with Help!, the album featured a contemporary stereo digital remix prepared by George Martin.[115] Martin had expressed concern to EMI over the original 1965 stereo mix, claiming it sounded "very woolly, and not at all what I thought should be a good issue". He went back to the original four-track tapes and remixed them for stereo.[366]

A newly remastered version of Rubber Soul, again using the 1987 Martin remix, was released worldwide as part of the reissue of the entire Beatles catalogue on 9 September 2009. The album was available both as an individual CD release and as part of the Beatles (The Original Studio Recordings) box set. The accompanying Beatles in Mono box set contained two versions of the album: the original mono mix and the 1965 stereo mix.[367][368]

The Capitol version was relaunched in 2006, for the Capitol Albums, Volume 2 box set,[203][369] using original mixes of the Capitol album, and then in 2014, individually and on the box set The U.S. Albums.[370]

Track listing In all markets except North America All tracks are written by Lennon–McCartney except where noted.

Side one No. Title Lead vocals Length 1. "Drive My Car" McCartney with Lennon 2:25 2. "Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)" Lennon 2:05 3. "You Won't See Me" McCartney 3:18 4. "Nowhere Man" Lennon 2:40 5. "Think for Yourself" (George Harrison) Harrison 2:16 6. "The Word" Lennon 2:41 7. "Michelle" McCartney 2:40 Total length: 18:05 Side two No. Title Lead vocals Length 1. "What Goes On" (Lennon–McCartney–Richard Starkey) Starr 2:47 2. "Girl" Lennon 2:30 3. "I'm Looking Through You" McCartney 2:23 4. "In My Life" Lennon 2:24 5. "Wait" Lennon and McCartney 2:12 6. "If I Needed Someone" (Harrison) Harrison 2:20 7. "Run for Your Life" Lennon 2:18 Total length: 16:54 Original North American release All tracks are written by Lennon–McCartney except where noted.

Side one No. Title Lead vocals Length 1. "I've Just Seen a Face" McCartney 2:04 2. "Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)" Lennon 2:05 3. "You Won't See Me" McCartney 3:19 4. "Think for Yourself" (Harrison) Harrison 2:19 5. "The Word" Lennon 2:42 6. "Michelle" McCartney 2:42 Total length: 15:11 Side two No. Title Lead vocals Length 1. "It's Only Love" Lennon 1:53 2. "Girl" Lennon 2:33 3. "I'm Looking Through You" McCartney 2:24 4. "In My Life" Lennon 2:24 5. "Wait" Lennon and McCartney 2:15 6. "Run for Your Life" Lennon 2:15 Total length: 13:44 Personnel According to Mark Lewisohn[371] and Ian MacDonald,[372] except where noted:

The Beatles

John Lennon – lead, harmony and backing vocals; rhythm, acoustic and lead[373] guitars; organ on "Think for Yourself"; tambourine[374] Paul McCartney – lead, harmony and backing vocals; bass, acoustic and lead guitars; piano; maracas[375] George Harrison – lead, harmony and backing vocals; lead, rhythm and acoustic guitars; sitar on "Norwegian Wood"; maracas,[375] tambourine[376] Ringo Starr – drums, tambourine, maracas, cowbell, bells, cymbals; Hammond organ on "I'm Looking Through You"; lead vocals on "What Goes On" Production and additional personnel

George Martin – production, mixing; piano on "In My Life", harmonium on "The Word" and "If I Needed Someone" Mal Evans – Hammond organ on "You Won't See Me" Norman Smith – engineering, mixing Robert Freeman – photography Charles Front – illustration[223] Charts Weekly charts Original release Chart (1965–66) Peak position Australian Kent Music Report[377] 1 Canadian CHUM's Album Index[378] 1 Finnish Albums Chart[379] 1 Swedish Kvällstoppen Chart[380] 20 UK Record Retailer LPs Chart[381] 1 US Billboard Top LPs[382] 1 US Cash Box Top 100 Albums[383] 1 US Record World 100 Top LP's[384] 1 West German Musikmarkt LP Hit-Parade[385] 1 1987 reissue Chart Position Dutch MegaChart Albums[386] 53 UK Albums Chart[387] 60 US Billboard Top Compact Disks[388] 2 2009 reissue Chart Position Australian ARIA Albums[389] 41 Austrian Ö3 Top 40 Longplay (Albums)[390] 53 Belgian Ultratop 200 Albums (Flanders)[391] 26 Belgian Ultratop 200 Albums (Walloonia)[392] 49 Danish Tracklisten Album Top-40[393] 31 Dutch MegaChart Albums[394] 87 Finnish Official Albums Chart[395] 17 Italian FIMI Albums Chart[396] 36 Japanese Oricon Albums Chart[397] 24 New Zealand RIANZ Albums[398] 25 Portuguese AFP Top 50 Albums[399] 14 Spanish PROMUSICAE Top 100 Albums[400] 59 Swedish Sverigetopplistan Albums Top 60[401] 17 Swiss Hitparade Albums Top 100[402] 51 UK Albums Chart[387] 10 Chart (2020–2022) Peak position Greece Albums (Billboard)[403] 2 Year-end charts Year-end chart performance for Rubber Soul Chart (1965) Ranking UK Record Retailer[269] 3 Chart (1966) Ranking UK Record Retailer[270] 3 US Billboard[272] 4 US Cash Box[404] 16 Decade-end charts Decade-end chart performance for Rubber Soul Chart (1960s) Ranking UK Albums Chart[405] 8 Certifications Sales certifications for Rubber Soul Region Certification Certified units/sales Argentina (CAPIF)[406] 2× Platinum 120,000^ Australia (ARIA)[407] Platinum 70,000^ Brazil (Pro-Música Brasil)[408] Gold 100,000* Canada (Music Canada)[409] 2× Platinum 200,000^ Germany (BVMI)[410] Gold 250,000^ Italy (FIMI)[411] sales since 2009 Gold 25,000double-dagger New Zealand (RMNZ)[412] Platinum 15,000^ United Kingdom (BPI)[413] 2× Platinum 600,000^ United States (RIAA)[274] 6× Platinum 6,000,000^

• Sales figures based on certification alone.

^ Shipments figures based on certification alone. double-dagger Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone.

dagger BPI certification awarded only for sales since 1994.[275]

Notes

Along with the Mamas & the Papas, the Byrds started as a folk act but embraced rock as a result of the Beatles.[12] Both of these American bands drew from George Harrison's use of the Rickenbacker 12-string electric guitar in 1964 to pioneer the folk rock style over the following year.[13]
The song appeared on the Anthology 2 outtakes compilation, edited down to under three minutes from its original length of 6:36.[51]
McGuinn later likened the exchange of ideas between British and American musicians during the mid 1960s to an "international code going back and forth through records".[67]
Everett comments on the significance of the band's interest in the harmonium, sitar and fuzz bass each occurring during the same period, pointing out that the three sounds overlap in their offering a wide vibrative quality and "more richly discordant" tones.[85]
McCartney began to insist that, when recording his compositions, the Beatles adhere to arrangements he had decided on in advance.[90] Smith said that McCartney was frequently critical of Harrison's playing, foreshadowing a condescending attitude on McCartney's part that would lead to Starr temporarily leaving the band three years later.[91]
In Gendron's view, "[The Beatles'] accreditory debt to Dylan and the folk rock movement was much less musical than it was discursive." He nevertheless sees Rubber Soul as the Beatles paying the "ultimate compliment" to the folk rock scene, which benefited from the band's "seal of approval".[100]
According to music journalist Rob Sheffield, the lyrics are so cryptic that the listener is left wondering: "does he light up a joint at the end or burn the girl's house down?"[118]
According to Everett, the same bouzouki-like guitar sound was used by the Hollies in their June 1966 single "Bus Stop".[162]
As released on Anthology 2, one of the earlier takes featured alternative instrumentation, such as classical guitars, and harmonium instead of Hammond organ.[171]
Gould adds that, with "In My Life", Lennon "returned the compliment gratefully" after Robinson had based the lyrical theme of "The Tracks of My Tears" on two of his introspective songs from Beatles for Sale, "I Don't Want to Spoil the Party" and "I'm a Loser".[175]
According to Norman, at the time, the song "slipped unchallenged into a world not yet disturbed by feminism or concerns about domestic violence".[196]
Music journalist Rob Sheffield describes the Capitol version as a "folk-rock album more conceptually unified" than the Parlophone LP.[207]
McCartney used a similar phrase – "Plastic soul, man, plastic soul"[211] – after the Beatles had completed the first take of "I'm Down", as released on the 1996 compilation Anthology 2.[212]
Although the front cover of Beatles for Sale carried no artist credit, the band's name formed part of the album title, which was rendered in minuscule type compared with standard LP artwork of the time.[218] The Beatles had first wanted an album cover free of any artist or title text with With the Beatles in 1963, but the idea was vetoed by EMI.[219]
McCartney recalled the band's reaction: "That's it, Rubber So-o-oul, hey hey! Can you do it like that?"[87]
Rubber Soul returned to the UK listings in May 1987,[245] peaking at number 60.[246] Among several chart appearances since then, the album reached number 10 in September 2009.[247]
Jackson cites this run of success as evidence that the Beatles "loomed over their era like possibly no other artist has since", adding that the six hit singles captured the nation's "shifting mood" throughout 1965.[255]
With reference to the mass appeal of "Michelle", Everett comments that McCartney's song proved more popular than "Nowhere Man" on the radio playlist compiled by WABC in New York, where it outlasted the official single by a week.[258] In reaction to a similar preference for the song from disc jockeys across America, Capitol added a yellow promotional sticker onto the LP cover saying "HEAR PAUL SING 'MICHELLE.'"[256]
KRLA's radio documentary series Pop Chronicles, which aired from 1969, dubbed this "renaissance" in music "the Rubberization of Soul".[289]
Marcus also said that it was this album focus that nullified any potential argument "that the Beatles' first four LPs, in their British configurations (Please Please Me, With the Beatles, A Hard Day's Night and Beatles for Sale), were as good as Rubber Soul".[303]
In 2020, when asked of which Beatles albums qualified for an A-plus grade, Christgau considered Rubber Soul as a "prime candidate" among scholars of the band, but concluded that, "while I feel and understand the artistic skill and historical momentousness ... in fact I only cream for three of its songs: 'Norwegian Wood,' 'Girl,' and 'In My Life.'"[310]
Du Noyer comments that the Beatles' contemporaries from their pre-fame years playing at the Cavern in Liverpool, such as the Searchers and Gerry Marsden, faded as a result of their ignoring the changes presented by Rubber Soul. He adds: "Some went cabaret and Cilla Black became the new Vera Lynn."[9]
In Gendron's description, one of two substantial early pieces by Goldstein was a laudatory assessment of Revolver that represented "the first substantial rock review devoted to one album to appear in any nonrock magazine with accreditory power".[326] In the review, Goldstein referred to Rubber Soul as being "as important to the expansion of pop territory" as the "revolutionary" Revolver[327] through its popularising of "baroque progression and Oriental instrumentation".[328]
Stevie Winwood, who formed the psychedelic rock band Traffic in 1967, sees Rubber Soul as the LP that "broke everything open", in that "It crossed music into a whole new dimension and was responsible for kicking off the sixties rock era."[301]
Harper also said: "After a few times on the turntable, you realised that the goal posts had been moved, forever, and you really wanted to hear the next record – now. You could sense Revolver just over the horizon. You were hooked."[318]
According to Christgau, the album also "smashed a lot of alienation", in that "Without reneging on the group's mass cult appeal, it reached into private lives and made hundreds of thousands of secretly lonely people feel as if someone out there shared their brightest insights and most depressing discoveries."[339]
As with Revolver, Everett sees the album's progressive rock antecedents among its combination of "rich multipart vocals brimming with expressive dissonance treatment, a deep exploration of different guitars and the capos that produced different colors from familiar finger patterns, surprising new timbres and electronic effects, a more soulful pentatonic approach to vocal and instrumental melody tinged by frequent twelve-bar jams that accompanied the more serious recording, and a fairly consistent search for meaningful ideas in lyrics".[348]

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Wikiquote has quotations related to Rubber Soul. Rubber Soul (Adobe Flash) at Radio3Net (streamed copy where licensed) Rubber Soul at Discogs (list of releases) Beatles comments on each song Recording data and notes on mono/stereo mixes and remixes vte Rubber Soul vte The Beatles albums vte UK Christmas number-one albums Authority control Edit this at Wikidata Categories: 1965 albumsThe Beatles albumsParlophone albumsCapitol Records albumsAlbums produced by George MartinAlbums with cover art by Robert Freeman (photographer)Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipientsFolk rock albums by English artistsCannabis music This page was last edited on 20 March 2023, at 12:32 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

is the activity of using one's hands, feet, or other parts of the body to ascend a steep topographical object that can range from the world's tallest mountains (e.g. the eight thousanders) to small boulders. Climbing is done for locomotion, for sporting recreation, for competition, and is also done in trades that rely on ascension; such as rescue and military operations. Climbing is done indoors and outdoors, on natural surfaces (e.g. rock climbing and ice climbing), and on artificial surfaces (e.g. climbing walls). OK Im'a make this hard to get onto.Linguist Leo Rosten wrote in The Joys of Yiddish about the first known mention of the Polish word bajgiel derived from the Yiddish word bagel in the "Community Regulations" of the city of Kraków in 1610, which stated that the food was given as a gift to women in childbirth.[9] There is some evidence that the bagel may have been made in Germany before being made in Poland.[2][10]

In the 16th and first half of the 17th centuries, the bajgiel became a staple of Polish cuisine.[11] Its name derives from the Yiddish word beygal from the German dialect word beugel, meaning 'ring' or 'bracelet'.[12]

Variants of the word beugal are used in Yiddish and in Austrian German to refer to a similar form of sweet-filled pastry; Mohnbeugel, a pastry filled with poppy seeds, and Nussbeugel, a pastry filled with ground nuts. The term is also used in southern German dialects, where beuge refers to a pile, e.g., holzbeuge ('woodpile'). According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, bagel derives from the transliteration of the Yiddish beygl, which came from the Middle High German böugel or 'ring', which itself came from bouc ('ring') in Old High German, similar to the Old English bēag ('ring') and būgan ('to bend, bow').[13] Similarly, another etymology in the Webster's New World College Dictionary says that the Middle High German form was derived from the Austrian German beugel, a kind of croissant, and was similar to the German bügel, a stirrup or ring.[14]

In the Brick Lane district and surrounding area of London, England, bagels (locally spelled "beigels") have been sold since the middle of the 19th century. They were often displayed in the windows of bakeries on vertical wooden dowels, up to a metre in length, on racks.[citation needed]

Bagels with cream cheese and lox (cured salmon) are considered a traditional part of American Jewish cuisine (colloquially known as "lox and a schmear"). Bagels were brought to the United States by immigrant Polish Jews, with a thriving business developing in New York City that was controlled for decades by Bagel Bakers Local 338. They had contracts with nearly all bagel bakeries in and around the city for its workers, who prepared all their bagels by hand.[15]

The bagel came into more general use throughout North America in the last quarter of the 20th century with automation. Daniel Thompson started work on the first commercially viable bagel machine in 1958; bagel baker Harry Lender, his son, Murray Lender, and Florence Sender leased this technology and pioneered automated production and distribution of frozen bagels in the 1960s.[16][17][18] Murray also invented pre-slicing the bagel.[19]

Around 1900, the "bagel brunch" became popular in New York City.[20] The bagel brunch consists of a bagel topped with lox, cream cheese, capers, tomato, and red onion.[20] This and similar combinations of toppings have remained associated with bagels into the 21st century in the United States.[21][22][23]

In Japan, the first kosher bagels were brought by BagelK [ja] from New York in 1989. BagelK created green tea, chocolate, maple-nut, and banana-nut flavors for the market in Japan. Some Japanese bagels, such as those sold by BAGEL & BAGEL [ja], are soft and sweet; others, such as Einstein Bro. bagels sold by Costco in Japan, are the same as in the U.S.[citation needed]

Size change over time Bagels in the U.S. have increased in size over time. Starting at around 2 ounces (57 g),[24] by 1915, the average bagel weighed 3 ounces (85 g);[15] the size began to increase further in the 1960s.[24] By 2003, the average bagel sold on a Manhattan coffee cart weighed around 6 ounces (170 g).[15]

Preparation and preservation

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Saturday morning bagel queue at St-Viateur Bagel, Montreal, Quebec At its most basic, traditional bagel dough contains wheat flour (without germ or bran), salt, water, and yeast leavening. Bread flour or other high gluten flours are preferred to create the firm, dense but spongy bagel shape and chewy texture.[3] With a dough hydration of around 50-57%, bagel dough is among the stiffest bread doughs.[25] Most bagel recipes call for the addition of a sweetener to the dough, often barley malt (syrup or crystals), honey, high fructose corn syrup, or sugar, with or without eggs, milk or butter.[3] Leavening can be accomplished using a sourdough technique or a commercially produced yeast.

Bagels are traditionally made by:

mixing and kneading the ingredients to form the dough shaping the dough into the traditional bagel shape, round with a hole in the middle, from a long thin piece of dough proofing the bagels for at least 12 hours at low temperature (40–50 °F (4–10 °C)) boiling each bagel in water for 60–90 seconds that may contain additives such as lye, baking soda, barley malt syrup, or honey baking at a temperature between 347–599 °F (175–315 °C) This production method gives bagels their distinctive taste, chewy texture, and shiny appearance.

In recent years, a variant has emerged, producing what is sometimes called the steam bagel. To make a steam bagel, the boiling is skipped, and the bagels are instead baked in an oven equipped with a steam injection system.[26] In commercial bagel production, the steam bagel process requires less labor, since bagels need only be directly handled once, at the shaping stage. Thereafter, the bagels need never be removed from their pans as they are refrigerated and then steam-baked. The steam bagel results in a fluffier, softer, less chewy product more akin to a finger roll that happens to be shaped like a bagel. The dough used is intentionally more alkaline to aid browning, because the steam injection process uses neutral water steam instead of an alkaline solution bath.[citation needed]

Bagels can be frozen for up to six months.[27]

Quality According to a 2012 Consumer Reports article, the ideal bagel should have a slightly crispy crust, a distinct "pull" when a piece is separated from the whole by biting or pinching, a chewy inside, and the flavor of bread freshly baked. The taste may be complemented by additions cooked on the bagel, such as onion, garlic, sesame seeds, or poppy seeds. The appeal of a bagel may change upon being toasted. Toasting can have the effect of bringing or removing desirable chewiness, softening the crust, and moderating off-flavors.[28]

A typical[clarification needed] bagel has 260–350 calories, 1.0–4.5 grams of fat, 330–660 milligrams of sodium, and 2–5 grams of fiber. Gluten-free bagels have much more fat, often 9 grams, because of ingredients in the dough to supplant the wheat flour of the original.[28]

Varieties New York style Main article: New York style bagel The New York bagel contains malt, is cold-fermented for several days to develop the flavors and enhance the crust, and is boiled in salted water before baking in a standard oven.[29] The resulting bagel has a fluffy interior and a chewy crust. According to CNN, Brooklynites believe New York bagels are the best due to the quality of the local water.[30] According to Brooklyn Water Bagels CEO Steven Fassberg, the characteristics of a New York bagel are the result of the recipe formula and preparation method.[30]

Montreal style Main article: Montreal-style bagel

Three Montreal-style bagels: one poppy and two sesame bagels Different from the New York style, the Montreal-style bagel contains malt and sugar with no salt; it is boiled in honey-sweetened water before baking in a wood-fired oven. It is predominantly of the sesame "white" seeds variety (bagels in Toronto are similar to those made in New York in that they are less sweet, generally are coated with poppy seeds and are baked in a standard oven).[citation needed]

St. Louis style The St. Louis style bagel refers not to composition, but to a particular method of slicing the bagel.[31] The St. Louis style bagels are sliced vertically multiple times, instead of the traditional single horizontal slice.[31] The slices range from 3 to 6 mm (0.12 to 0.24 in) thick.[32] This style of bagel was popularized by the St. Louis Bread Company, now known as Panera Bread.[31] Generally, the bagels are sliced into eight pieces using a bread slicer, which produces characteristically precise cuts (the bagel is not torn or crushed while slicing).[32] This particular method of preparation increases the surface area available for spreads (e.g., cream cheese, butter).[31] However, it decreases the portability of the bagel and prevents formation of sandwiches.[33]

Other bagel styles Other bagel styles can be found elsewhere; Chicago-style bagels are baked with steam. American chef John Mitzewich has a recipe for what he calls San Francisco-style bagels which yields bagels flatter than New York-style bagels, characterized by a rough-textured crust. The traditional London bagel (or beigel as it is spelled) is chewier and has a denser texture.

In Austria, beigl (often also spelled beigerl or beugerl in its diminutive form) are a traditional Lenten food. The rings are made from a yeasted dough, rolled out very thin and briefly boiled in salted water before topped with salt and caraway seeds and then baked. Depending on the region, they are sometimes baked to a very hard consistency, making them relatively brittle. Connected with it is the tradition of Beiglreißen (lit. 'ripping/tearing the beigl') at Easter where two people pull on opposite ends of a beigl until it breaks into two pieces. Tearing off the larger piece is meant to bring good luck.[34] In Vienna, Eastern Lower Austria and Burgenland, beugerl has taken on the meaning of certain types of kipferl.[35]

Non-traditional doughs and types While normally and traditionally made of yeasted wheat, in the late 20th century variations on the bagel flourished. Non-traditional versions that change the dough recipe include pumpernickel, rye, sourdough, bran, whole wheat, and multigrain. Other variations change the flavor of the dough, often using blueberry, salt, onion, garlic, egg, cinnamon, raisin, chocolate chip, cheese, or some combination of the above. Green bagels are sometimes created for St. Patrick's Day.[36]

A flat bagel, known as a 'flagel', can be found in a few locations in and around New York City, Long Island, and Toronto. According to a review attributed to New York's Village Voice food critic Robert Seitsema, the flagel was first created by Brooklyn's 'Tasty Bagels' deli in the early 1990s.[37]

Large scale commercial sales United States supermarket sales

Mass-produced steamed bagel purchased from a grocery store. According to the American Institute of Baking (AIB), 2008 supermarket sales (52-week period ending January 27, 2009) of the top eight leading commercial fresh (not frozen) bagel brands in the United States:

totaled to US$430,185,378 based on 142,669,901 package unit sales.[38] the top eight leading brand names for the above were (by order of sales): Thomas', Sara Lee, (private label brands) Pepperidge Farm, Thomas Mini Squares, Lender's Bagels (Pinnacle Foods), Weight Watchers and The Alternative Bagel (Western Bagel).[38] Further, AIB-provided statistics for the 52-week period ending May 18, 2008, for refrigerated/frozen supermarket bagel sales for the top 10 brand names totaled US$50,737,860, based on 36,719,977 unit package sales.[39]

The AIB reported US$626.9 million fresh bagel US supermarket sales (excluding Wal-Mart) for the 52 weeks ending 11 April 2012.[40] Fresh/frozen supermarket sales (excluding Wal-Mart) for the 52 weeks ending 13 May 2012 was US$592.7 million.[40] The average price for a bag of fresh bagels was $3.27; for frozen it was $1.23.[citation needed]

Similar breads

Ukrainian bublik Many cultures developed similar breads and preparations, such as bubliki in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, and obwarzanek (in particular obwarzanek krakowski) in Poland. Somewhat similar in appearance to bagels, these breads are usually topped with sesame and poppy seeds. The ingredients in these breads and bagels somewhat differ, as these breads are made with a different dough using butter.[41] and sometimes also with milk.[42]

In Italy, taralli and friselle [it] are breads similar to bagels.

In Turkey, a salty and fattier form is called açma. The ring-shaped simit is sometimes marketed today as a Turkish bagel. Archival sources show that the simit has been produced in Istanbul since 1525.[43] Based on Üsküdar court records (Şer’iyye Sicili) dated 1593,[44] the weight and price of simit was standardized for the first time. Noted 17th-century traveler Evliya Çelebi wrote that there were 70 simit bakeries in Istanbul during the 1630s.[45]

Jean Brindesi's early 19th-century oil paintings about Istanbul daily life show simit sellers on the streets.[46] Warwick Goble made an illustration of the simit sellers of Istanbul in 1906.[47] Simit is very similar to the twisted sesame-sprinkled bagels pictured being sold in early 20th century Poland. Simit are also sold on the street in baskets or carts, as bagels were then.[citation needed]

The Uyghurs of Xinjiang, China enjoy girdeh nan (from Persian, meaning round bread), a type of nan, the local bread.[48]

Another bagel-like type of bread is the traditional German Dortmunder Salzkuchen from the 19th century.[49]

Ka'ak al-Quds (better known in English as the Jerusalem bagel) is an oblong ring bread, usually topped with sesame seeds, with its origins in Jerusalem. Unlike the bagel, it is not boiled prior to baking.[50]

Cultural references "Bagel" is also a Yeshivish term for sleeping 12 hours straight—e.g., "I slept a bagel last night." There are various opinions as to the origins of this term. It may be a reference to the fact that bagel dough has to "rest" for at least 12 hours between mixing and baking[2]: 4–5  or simply to the fact that the hour hand on a clock traces a bagel shape over the course of 12 hours.[citation needed]

In tennis, a "bagel" refers to a player winning a set 6–0; winning a match 6–0, 6–0, 6–0 is called a "triple bagel".[51]

"Bublichki" or "Bagelach" is a title of a famous Russian and Yiddish song written in Odessa in the 1920s. The Barry Sisters together with the Ziggy Elman Orchestra made it popular in the US in 1939. Today it belongs to the repertoire of klezmer, jazz and pop musicians.[citation needed]

In Quizbowl, a "bagel" refers to failing to correctly answer any part of a multi-part bonus question (i.e. "We bageled that bonus on the Franco-Mongol alliance in the first finals match."). This is because a bagel looks like the number zero, which is the points gained by incorrectly answering all of the questions.[52]

In the United States, February 9 is often celebrated as National Bagel Day,[53] in which people celebrate the rich history of getting together and eating bagels.[citation needed]

The term "bageling" refers to when a Jew uses a Jewish word or phrase in a conversation, or in the vicinity of a stranger who is also clearly Jewish, in order to inform them that they are also Jewish.[54]

The bagel is a major plot device in the 2022 science-fiction film Everything Everywhere All at Once.[55]

See also icon Food portal Judaism portal Appetizing store Bagel and cream cheese Bialy (bread) Doughnut Jewish cuisine Pizza bagel Pletzel Simit References

"Definition: Beigel". Dictionary.com. Retrieved July 11, 2011.
Balinska, Maria (2008-11-03). The Bagel: The Surprising History of a Modest Bread. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14232-7.
"Bagel". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Retrieved February 24, 2009.
Roden, Claudia (1996). The Book of Jewish Food: An Odyssey from Samarkand to New York. Retrieved April 7, 2015.
Nathan, Joan (12 November 2008). "A Short History of the Bagel: From ancient Egypt to Lender's". Slate.
"History of the Bagel: The Hole Story". Columbia University NYC24 New Media Workshop. Archived from the original on 2011-08-22. Retrieved February 24, 2009.
Perry, Charles (2017). Scents and Flavours (A Bilingual Translation of a 13th Century Syrian Cookbook). NYU Press. pp. xxxiv, 189. ISBN 978-1479856282.
Dembińska, Maria (1999). Food and Drink in Medieval Poland: Rediscovering a Cuisine of the Past. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0812232240.
Trowbridge Filippone, Peggy. "Bagel History: Bagels date back to the 1600s". About.com. Archived from the original on May 18, 2016. Retrieved March 27, 2013.
Weinzweig, Ari (March 26, 2009). "The Secret History of Bagels". theatlantic.com. Retrieved February 3, 2021.
Altschuler, Glenn C. (November 5, 2008). "Three Centuries of Bagels". forward.com.
Davidson, Alan (2006). Oxford Companion to Food (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0192806819.
"Dictionary definition of 'bagel'". merriam-webster.com. 2009. Retrieved April 24, 2009.
"Dictionary definition of 'bagel'". yourdictionary.com. 2005. Retrieved April 24, 2009.
Levine, Ed (2003-12-31). "Was Life Better When Bagels Were Smaller? (Published 2003)". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-02-03.
Klagsburn, Francine (July 8, 2009). "Chewing Over The Bagel's Story". The Jewish Week. Archived from the original on January 14, 2013. Retrieved July 15, 2009.
Hevesi, Dennis (2012-03-22). "Murray Lender, Who Gave All America a Taste of Bagels, Dies at 81". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-04-19.
Rothman, Lily (2012-03-23). "Murray Lender, the man who brought bagels to the masses". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2012-04-19.
"Murray Lender". The Economist. 21 April 2012. Retrieved 30 August 2012.
Adamson, M.W.; Segan, F. (2008). Entertaining from Ancient Rome to the Super Bowl: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-313-08689-2.
Parker, Milton; Freeman, Allyn (2005). How to Feed Friends and Influence People: The Carnegie Deli: A Giant Sandwich, a Little Deli, a Huge Success. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. p. 97. ISBN 0471710350. Retrieved 2015-12-20.
Clark, Melissa (2013-09-24). "Setting Out the Bagels and Lox". The New York Times. Retrieved 2015-12-20.
Warner, Justin (2015). The Laws of Cooking* *and How to Break Them. New York: Flatiron Books. p. 83. ISBN 978-1250065131. Retrieved 2015-12-20.
Blasey, Laura (2 August 2018). "Why have bagels become so big and bready?". Newsday. Archived from the original on 2018-08-03. Retrieved 2021-02-03.
"SCS 020| Bread Classifications | Stella Culinary".
Reinhart, Peter (2001). The Bread Baker's Apprentice. Ten Speed Press. p. 115.
Croswell, Jonathan (August 8, 2011). "How to Keep a Bagel Moist".
"Top Bagels – Bagel Buying Guide". Consumer Reports. July 2012.
"The untold truth of New York bagels". Mashable. 11 April 2019. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
"Bagels, water and an urban legend". CNN. Archived from the original on 14 November 2015. Retrieved 18 May 2015.
McDowell, Maya (2019-03-28). "In Defense Of The Bread-Sliced Bagel, From A St. Louis Native". Delish. Retrieved 2019-03-30.
"Bread-slicing Machine". National Museum of American History. Retrieved 2019-03-30.
"Apparently People Slice Bagels Like Bread In St. Louis And Honestly? WTF". BuzzFeed News. Retrieved 2019-03-30.
"FASTENBEUGEL". 6 March 2020. Retrieved 2020-11-09.
"Beugel". Retrieved 2020-11-09.
Updyke, Andrea (2020-03-03). "Green Bagels for St. Patrick's Day". justisafourletterword.com. Retrieved 2021-02-23.
Browne, Alaina. "Flagel = Flat Bagel (review)". seriouseats.com. Retrieved April 24, 2009.
Baking Management (2008) AIB website data: Bagels 2008, from Baking Management, p. 10, March 2009, Statistics from Information Resources, retrieved 2009-03-23 from American Institute of Baking website: Bagels 2008 updated to March 10, 2009;
Baking Management (2008) AIB website data: Bagels 2008, from Redbook, July 2008, p. 20, Statistics from Information Resources. retrieved 2009-03-23 from American Institute of Baking website: Bagels 2008 updated to March 10, 2009
AIB International, Bagels 2012. Data obtained from SymphonyIRI Group from scanner data from Supermarkets, Drugstores, and Mass Merchandisers (does not includeWal-Mart).
Victoria Drey (19 March 2019). "Bubliki: The star of a Russian-style bagel brunch". Russian Beyond.
"Bublik". The Bread Guru. 6 July 2016. Retrieved 11 October 2019.
Sahillioğlu, Halil. “Osmanlılarda Narh Müessesesi ve 1525 Yılı Sonunda İstanbul’da Fiyatlar". Belgelerle Türk Tarihi 2 [The Narh Institution in the Ottoman Empire and the Prices in Istanbul in Late 1525. Documents in Turkish History 2] (Kasım 1967): 56
Ünsal, Artun. Susamlı Halkanın Tılsımı.[The Secret of the Ring with Sesames] İstanbul: YKY, 2010: 45
Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnâmesi Kitap I. [The Seyahatname Book I] (Robert Dankoff, Seyit Ali Kahraman, Yücel Dağlı). İstanbul: YKY, 2006: 231
Jean Brindesi, Illustrations de Elbicei atika. Musée des anciens costumes turcs d'Istanbul, Paris: Lemercier, [1855]
Alexander Van Millingen, Constantinople (London: Black, 1906) https://www.gutenberg.org/files/39620/39620-h/39620-h.htm
Allen, Thomas B. (March 1996). "Xinjiang". National Geographic Magazine, pp. 36–37
https://www.wr.de/wr-info/warum-es-salzkuchen-nur-in-dortmund-gibt-id2664850.html. Warum es Salzkuchen nur in Dortmund gibt. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
Haber, Joel (13 April 2021). "Respectfully Responding to Reem Kassis (Re: Bagels)". The Taste of Jewish Culture. Retrieved 30 December 2021.
Collins, Bud; Hollander, Zander (1994). Bud Collins' Modern Encyclopedia of Tennis (2, illustrated ed.). Visible Ink Press. pp. 484–85. ISBN 978-0-8103-9443-8.
Eltinge, Stephen. "Quizbowl Lexicon". Partnership for Academic Competition Excellence. Retrieved 2020-06-12.
"Home". National Bagel Day. Retrieved 2018-03-26.
"Bageling". Jewish English Lexicon. Retrieved July 27, 2020.
El-Mahmoud, Sarah (8 April 2022). "Everything Everywhere All At Once Ending: The Point Behind The Multiverse, The Everything Bagel, And Michelle Yeoh's Trippy Film". Cinema Blend. Retrieved 11 April 2022.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bagels. vte Jewish cuisine vte Ring and knot-shaped breads vte Street food vte Israeli cuisine Authority control Edit this at Wikidata Categories: BagelsJewish baked goodsPolish cuisineSeeded breadsSnack foodsStreet food This page was last edited on 12 March 2023, at 21:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.Ice is water frozen into a solid state, typically forming at or below temperatures of 0 degrees Celsius or 32 °F (0 °C; 273 K)[3][4] Depending on the presence of impurities such as particles of soil or bubbles of air, it can appear transparent or a more or less opaque bluish-white color.

In the Solar System, ice is abundant and occurs naturally from as close to the Sun as Mercury to as far away as the Oort cloud objects. Beyond the Solar System, it occurs as interstellar ice. It is abundant on Earth's surface – particularly in the polar regions and above the snow line[5] – and, as a common form of precipitation and deposition, plays a key role in Earth's water cycle and climate. It falls as snowflakes and hail or occurs as frost, icicles or ice spikes and aggregates from snow as glaciers and ice sheets.

Ice exhibits at least eighteen phases (packing geometries), depending on temperature and pressure. When water is cooled rapidly (quenching), up to three types of amorphous ice can form depending on its history of pressure and temperature. When cooled slowly, correlated proton tunneling occurs below −253.15 °C (20 K, −423.67 °F) giving rise to macroscopic quantum phenomena. Virtually all ice on Earth's surface and in its atmosphere is of a hexagonal crystalline structure denoted as ice Ih (spoken as "ice one h") with minute traces of cubic ice, denoted as ice Ic and, more recently found, Ice VII inclusions in diamonds. The most common phase transition to ice Ih occurs when liquid water is cooled below 0 °C (273.15 K, 32 °F) at standard atmospheric pressure. It may also be deposited directly by water vapor, as happens in the formation of frost. The transition from ice to water is melting and from ice directly to water vapor is sublimation.

Ice is used in a variety of ways, including for cooling, for winter sports, and ice sculpting.

Physical properties

The three-dimensional crystal structure of H2O ice Ih (c) is composed of bases of H2O ice molecules (b) located on lattice points within the two-dimensional hexagonal space lattice (a).[6][7] As a naturally occurring crystalline inorganic solid with an ordered structure, ice is considered to be a mineral.[8][9] It possesses a regular crystalline structure based on the molecule of water, which consists of a single oxygen atom covalently bonded to two hydrogen atoms, or H–O–H. However, many of the physical properties of water and ice are controlled by the formation of hydrogen bonds between adjacent oxygen and hydrogen atoms; while it is a weak bond, it is nonetheless critical in controlling the structure of both water and ice.

An unusual property of water is that its solid form—ice frozen at atmospheric pressure—is approximately 8.3% less dense than its liquid form; this is equivalent to a volumetric expansion of 9%. The density of ice is 0.9167[1]–0.9168[2] g/cm3 at 0 °C and standard atmospheric pressure (101,325 Pa), whereas water has a density of 0.9998[1]–0.999863[2] g/cm3 at the same temperature and pressure. Liquid water is densest, essentially 1.00 g/cm3, at 4 °C and begins to lose its density as the water molecules begin to form the hexagonal crystals of ice as the freezing point is reached. This is due to hydrogen bonding dominating the intermolecular forces, which results in a packing of molecules less compact in the solid. Density of ice increases slightly with decreasing temperature and has a value of 0.9340 g/cm3 at −180 °C (93 K).[10]

When water freezes, it increases in volume (about 9% for fresh water).[11] The effect of expansion during freezing can be dramatic, and ice expansion is a basic cause of freeze-thaw weathering of rock in nature and damage to building foundations and roadways from frost heaving. It is also a common cause of the flooding of houses when water pipes burst due to the pressure of expanding water when it freezes.

The result of this process is that ice (in its most common form) floats on liquid water, which is an important feature in Earth's biosphere. It has been argued that without this property, natural bodies of water would freeze, in some cases permanently, from the bottom up,[12] resulting in a loss of bottom-dependent animal and plant life in fresh and sea water. Sufficiently thin ice sheets allow light to pass through while protecting the underside from short-term weather extremes such as wind chill. This creates a sheltered environment for bacterial and algal colonies. When sea water freezes, the ice is riddled with brine-filled channels which sustain sympagic organisms such as bacteria, algae, copepods and annelids, which in turn provide food for animals such as krill and specialised fish like the bald notothen, fed upon in turn by larger animals such as emperor penguins and minke whales.[13]

When ice melts, it absorbs as much energy as it would take to heat an equivalent mass of water by 80 °C. During the melting process, the temperature remains constant at 0 °C. While melting, any energy added breaks the hydrogen bonds between ice (water) molecules. Energy becomes available to increase the thermal energy (temperature) only after enough hydrogen bonds are broken that the ice can be considered liquid water. The amount of energy consumed in breaking hydrogen bonds in the transition from ice to water is known as the heat of fusion.

As with water, ice absorbs light at the red end of the spectrum preferentially as the result of an overtone of an oxygen–hydrogen (O–H) bond stretch. Compared with water, this absorption is shifted toward slightly lower energies. Thus, ice appears blue, with a slightly greener tint than liquid water. Since absorption is cumulative, the color effect intensifies with increasing thickness or if internal reflections cause the light to take a longer path through the ice.[14]

Other colors can appear in the presence of light absorbing impurities, where the impurity is dictating the color rather than the ice itself. For instance, icebergs containing impurities (e.g., sediments, algae, air bubbles) can appear brown, grey or green.[14]

Because ice in natural environments is usually close to its melting temperature, its hardness shows pronounced temperature variations. At its melting point, ice has a Mohs hardness of 2 or less, but the hardness increases to about 4 at a temperature of −44 °C (−47 °F) and to 6 at a temperature of −78.5 °C (−109.3 °F), the vaporization point of solid carbon dioxide (dry ice).[15]

Phases

Pressure dependence of ice melting Ice may be any one of the 19 known solid crystalline phases of water, or in an amorphous solid state at various densities.[16]

Most liquids under increased pressure freeze at higher temperatures because the pressure helps to hold the molecules together. However, the strong hydrogen bonds in water make it different: for some pressures higher than 1 atm (0.10 MPa), water freezes at a temperature below 0 °C, as shown in the phase diagram below. The melting of ice under high pressures is thought to contribute to the movement of glaciers.[17]

Ice, water, and water vapour can coexist at the triple point, which is exactly 273.16 K (0.01 °C) at a pressure of 611.657 Pa.[18][19] The kelvin was in fact defined as 1 / 273.16

of the difference between this triple point and absolute zero,[20] though this definition changed in May 2019.[21] Unlike most other solids, ice is difficult to superheat. In an experiment, ice at −3 °C was superheated to about 17 °C for about 250 picoseconds.[22]

Subjected to higher pressures and varying temperatures, ice can form in 19 separate known crystalline phases. With care, at least 15 of these phases (one of the known exceptions being ice X) can be recovered at ambient pressure and low temperature in metastable form.[23][24] The types are differentiated by their crystalline structure, proton ordering,[25] and density. There are also two metastable phases of ice under pressure, both fully hydrogen-disordered; these are IV and XII. Ice XII was discovered in 1996. In 2006, XIII and XIV were discovered.[26] Ices XI, XIII, and XIV are hydrogen-ordered forms of ices Ih, V, and XII respectively. In 2009, ice XV was found at extremely high pressures and −143 °C.[27] At even higher pressures, ice is predicted to become a metal; this has been variously estimated to occur at 1.55 TPa[28] or 5.62 TPa.[29]

As well as crystalline forms, solid water can exist in amorphous states as amorphous solid water (ASW) of varying densities. Water in the interstellar medium is dominated by amorphous ice, making it likely the most common form of water in the universe. Low-density ASW (LDA), also known as hyperquenched glassy water, may be responsible for noctilucent clouds on Earth and is usually formed by deposition of water vapor in cold or vacuum conditions. High-density ASW (HDA) is formed by compression of ordinary ice Ih or LDA at GPa pressures. Very-high-density ASW (VHDA) is HDA slightly warmed to 160 K under 1–2 GPa pressures.

In outer space, hexagonal crystalline ice (the predominant form found on Earth) is extremely rare. Amorphous ice is more common; however, hexagonal crystalline ice can be formed by volcanic action.[30]

Ice from a theorized superionic water may possess two crystalline structures. At pressures in excess of 500,000 bars (7,300,000 psi) such superionic ice would take on a body-centered cubic structure. However, at pressures in excess of 1,000,000 bars (15,000,000 psi) the structure may shift to a more stable face-centered cubic lattice. It is speculated that superionic ice could compose the interior of ice giants such as Uranus and Neptune.[31]

Log-lin pressure-temperature phase diagram of water. The Roman numerals correspond to some ice phases listed below.

An alternative formulation of the phase diagram for certain ices and other phases of water[32] Phase Characteristics Amorphous ice Amorphous ice is ice lacking crystal structure. Amorphous ice exists in four forms: low-density (LDA) formed at atmospheric pressure, or below, medium-density (MDA), high-density (HDA) and very-high-density amorphous ice (VHDA), forming at higher pressures. LDA forms by extremely quick cooling of liquid water ("hyperquenched glassy water", HGW), by depositing water vapour on very cold substrates ("amorphous solid water", ASW) or by heating high density forms of ice at ambient pressure ("LDA"). Recently, a medium-density amorphous form ("MDA") has been shown to exist, created by ball-milling ice Ih at low temperatures.[33] Ice Ih Normal hexagonal crystalline ice. Virtually all ice in the biosphere is ice Ih, with the exception only of a small amount of ice Ic. Ice Ic A metastable cubic crystalline variant of ice. The oxygen atoms are arranged in a diamond structure. It is produced at temperatures between 130 and 220 K, and can exist up to 240 K,[34][35] when it transforms into ice Ih. It may occasionally be present in the upper atmosphere.[36] More recently, it has been shown that many samples which were described as cubic ice were actually stacking disordered ice with trigonal symmetry.[37] The first samples of ice I with cubic symmetry (i.e. cubic ice) were only reported in 2020.[38] Ice II A rhombohedral crystalline form with highly ordered structure. Formed from ice Ih by compressing it at temperature of 190–210 K. When heated, it undergoes transformation to ice III. Ice III A tetragonal crystalline ice, formed by cooling water down to 250 K at 300 MPa. Least dense of the high-pressure phases. Denser than water. Ice IV A metastable rhombohedral phase. It can be formed by heating high-density amorphous ice slowly at a pressure of 810 MPa. It does not form easily without a nucleating agent.[39] Ice V A monoclinic crystalline phase. Formed by cooling water to 253 K at 500 MPa. Most complicated structure of all the phases.[40] Ice VI A tetragonal crystalline phase. Formed by cooling water to 270 K at 1.1 GPa. Exhibits Debye relaxation.[41] Ice VII A cubic phase. The hydrogen atoms' positions are disordered. Exhibits Debye relaxation. The hydrogen bonds form two interpenetrating lattices. Ice VIIt Forms at around 5 GPa, when Ice VII becomes tetragonal.[42] Ice VIII A more ordered version of ice VII, where the hydrogen atoms assume fixed positions. It is formed from ice VII, by cooling it below 5 °C (278 K) at 2.1 GPa. Ice IX A tetragonal phase. Formed gradually from ice III by cooling it from 208 K to 165 K, stable below 140 K and pressures between 200 MPa and 400 MPa. It has density of 1.16 g/cm3, slightly higher than ordinary ice. Ice X Proton-ordered symmetric ice. Forms at pressures around 70 GPa,[43] or perhaps as low as 30 GPa.[42] Ice XI An orthorhombic, low-temperature equilibrium form of hexagonal ice. It is ferroelectric. Ice XI is considered the most stable configuration of ice Ih.[44] Ice XII A tetragonal, metastable, dense crystalline phase. It is observed in the phase space of ice V and ice VI. It can be prepared by heating high-density amorphous ice from 77 K to about 183 K at 810 MPa. It has a density of 1.3 g·cm−3 at 127 K (i.e., approximately 1.3 times denser than water). Ice XIII A monoclinic crystalline phase. Formed by cooling water to below 130 K at 500 MPa. The proton-ordered form of ice V.[45] Ice XIV An orthorhombic crystalline phase. Formed below 118 K at 1.2 GPa. The proton-ordered form of ice XII.[45] Ice XV A proton-ordered form of ice VI formed by cooling water to around 80–108 K at 1.1 GPa. Ice XVI The least dense crystalline form of water, topologically equivalent to the empty structure of sII clathrate hydrates. Square ice Square ice crystals form at room temperature when squeezed between two layers of graphene. The material was a new crystalline phase of ice when it was first reported in 2014.[46][47] The research derived from the earlier discovery that water vapor and liquid water could pass through laminated sheets of graphene oxide, unlike smaller molecules such as helium. The effect is thought to be driven by the van der Waals force, which may involve more than 10,000 atmospheres of pressure.[46] Ice XVII A porous hexagonal crystalline phase with helical channels, with density near that of ice XVI.[48][49][50] Formed by placing hydrogen-filled ice in a vacuum and increasing the temperature until the hydrogen molecules escape.[48] Ice XVIII A form of water also known as superionic water or superionic ice in which oxygen ions develop a crystalline structure while hydrogen ions move freely. Ice XIX Another phase related to ice VI formed by cooling water to around 100 K at approximately 2 GPa.[16] Friction properties

Frozen waterfall in southeast New York The low coefficient of friction ("slipperiness") of ice has been attributed to the pressure of an object coming into contact with the ice, melting a thin layer of the ice and allowing the object to glide across the surface.[51] For example, the blade of an ice skate, upon exerting pressure on the ice, would melt a thin layer, providing lubrication between the ice and the blade. This explanation, called "pressure melting", originated in the 19th century. However, it does not account for skating on ice temperatures lower than −4 °C (25 °F; 269 K), which is often skated upon. Also, the effect of pressure melting is too small to account for the reduced friction as commonly experienced.[52]

A second theory describing the coefficient of friction of ice suggested that ice molecules at the interface cannot properly bond with the molecules of the mass of ice beneath (and thus are free to move like molecules of liquid water). These molecules remain in a semi-liquid state, providing lubrication regardless of pressure against the ice exerted by any object. However, the significance of this hypothesis is disputed by experiments showing a high coefficient of friction for ice using atomic force microscopy.[52]

A third theory is "friction heating", which suggests that friction of the material is the cause of the ice layer melting. However, this theory does not sufficiently explain why ice is slippery when standing still even at below-zero temperatures.[51]

A comprehensive theory of ice friction takes into account all the above-mentioned friction mechanisms.[53] This model allows quantitative estimation of the friction coefficient of ice against various materials as a function of temperature and sliding speed. In typical conditions related to winter sports and tires of a vehicle on ice, melting of a thin ice layer due to the frictional heating is the primary reason for the slipperiness.[citation needed] The mechanism controlling the frictional properties of ice is still an active area of scientific study.[54]

Natural formation

Feather ice on the plateau near Alta, Norway. The crystals form at temperatures below −30 °C (−22 °F). The term that collectively describes all of the parts of the Earth's surface where water is in frozen form is the cryosphere. Ice is an important component of the global climate, particularly in regard to the water cycle. Glaciers and snowpacks are an important storage mechanism for fresh water; over time, they may sublimate or melt. Snowmelt is an important source of seasonal fresh water. The World Meteorological Organization defines several kinds of ice depending on origin, size, shape, influence and so on.[55] Clathrate hydrates are forms of ice that contain gas molecules trapped within its crystal lattice.

On the oceans Main article: Sea ice Ice that is found at sea may be in the form of drift ice floating in the water, fast ice fixed to a shoreline or anchor ice if attached to the sea bottom. Ice which calves (breaks off) from an ice shelf or glacier may become an iceberg. Sea ice can be forced together by currents and winds to form pressure ridges up to 12 metres (39 ft) tall. Navigation through areas of sea ice occurs in openings called "polynyas" or "leads" or requires the use of a special ship called an "icebreaker".

On land and structures

Ice on deciduous tree after freezing rain Ice on land ranges from the largest type called an "ice sheet" to smaller ice caps and ice fields to glaciers and ice streams to the snow line and snow fields.

Aufeis is layered ice that forms in Arctic and subarctic stream valleys. Ice, frozen in the stream bed, blocks normal groundwater discharge, and causes the local water table to rise, resulting in water discharge on top of the frozen layer. This water then freezes, causing the water table to rise further and repeat the cycle. The result is a stratified ice deposit, often several meters thick.

Freezing rain is a type of winter storm called an ice storm where rain falls and then freezes producing a glaze of ice. Ice can also form icicles, similar to stalactites in appearance, or stalagmite-like forms as water drips and re-freezes.

The term "ice dam" has three meanings (others discussed below). On structures, an ice dam is the buildup of ice on a sloped roof which stops melt water from draining properly and can cause damage from water leaks in buildings.

On rivers and streams

A small frozen rivulet Ice which forms on moving water tends to be less uniform and stable than ice which forms on calm water. Ice jams (sometimes called "ice dams"), when broken chunks of ice pile up, are the greatest ice hazard on rivers. Ice jams can cause flooding, damage structures in or near the river, and damage vessels on the river. Ice jams can cause some hydropower industrial facilities to completely shut down. An ice dam is a blockage from the movement of a glacier which may produce a proglacial lake. Heavy ice flows in rivers can also damage vessels and require the use of an icebreaker to keep navigation possible.

Ice discs are circular formations of ice surrounded by water in a river.[56]

Pancake ice is a formation of ice generally created in areas with less calm conditions.

On lakes Ice forms on calm water from the shores, a thin layer spreading across the surface, and then downward. Ice on lakes is generally four types: primary, secondary, superimposed and agglomerate.[57][58] Primary ice forms first. Secondary ice forms below the primary ice in a direction parallel to the direction of the heat flow. Superimposed ice forms on top of the ice surface from rain or water which seeps up through cracks in the ice which often settles when loaded with snow.

Shelf ice occurs when floating pieces of ice are driven by the wind piling up on the windward shore.

Candle ice is a form of rotten ice that develops in columns perpendicular to the surface of a lake.

An ice shove occurs when ice movement, caused by ice expansion and/or wind action, occurs to the extent that ice pushes onto the shores of lakes, often displacing sediment that makes up the shoreline.[59]

In the air

Ice formation on exterior of vehicle windshield Rime Rime is a type of ice formed on cold objects when drops of water crystallize on them. This can be observed in foggy weather, when the temperature drops during the night. Soft rime contains a high proportion of trapped air, making it appear white rather than transparent, and giving it a density about one quarter of that of pure ice. Hard rime is comparatively dense.

Pellets Main article: Ice pellets

An accumulation of ice pellets Ice pellets are a form of precipitation consisting of small, translucent balls of ice. This form of precipitation is also referred to as "sleet" by the United States National Weather Service.[60] (In British English "sleet" refers to a mixture of rain and snow.) Ice pellets are usually smaller than hailstones.[61] They often bounce when they hit the ground, and generally do not freeze into a solid mass unless mixed with freezing rain. The METAR code for ice pellets is PL.[62]

Ice pellets form when a layer of above-freezing air is located between 1,500 and 3,000 metres (4,900 and 9,800 ft) above the ground, with sub-freezing air both above and below it. This causes the partial or complete melting of any snowflakes falling through the warm layer. As they fall back into the sub-freezing layer closer to the surface, they re-freeze into ice pellets. However, if the sub-freezing layer beneath the warm layer is too small, the precipitation will not have time to re-freeze, and freezing rain will be the result at the surface. A temperature profile showing a warm layer above the ground is most likely to be found in advance of a warm front during the cold season,[63] but can occasionally be found behind a passing cold front.

Hail Main article: Hail

A large hailstone, about 6 cm (2.4 in) in diameter Like other precipitation, hail forms in storm clouds when supercooled water droplets freeze on contact with condensation nuclei, such as dust or dirt. The storm's updraft blows the hailstones to the upper part of the cloud. The updraft dissipates and the hailstones fall down, back into the updraft, and are lifted up again. Hail has a diameter of 5 millimetres (0.20 in) or more.[64] Within METAR code, GR is used to indicate larger hail, of a diameter of at least 6.4 millimetres (0.25 in) and GS for smaller.[62] Stones of 19 millimetres (0.75 in), 25 millimetres (1.0 in) and 44 millimetres (1.75 in) are the most frequently reported hail sizes in North America.[65] Hailstones can grow to 15 centimetres (6 in) and weigh more than 0.5 kilograms (1.1 lb).[66] In large hailstones, latent heat released by further freezing may melt the outer shell of the hailstone. The hailstone then may undergo 'wet growth', where the liquid outer shell collects other smaller hailstones.[67] The hailstone gains an ice layer and grows increasingly larger with each ascent. Once a hailstone becomes too heavy to be supported by the storm's updraft, it falls from the cloud.[68]

Hail forms in strong thunderstorm clouds, particularly those with intense updrafts, high liquid water content, great vertical extent, large water droplets, and where a good portion of the cloud layer is below freezing 0 °C (32 °F).[64] Hail-producing clouds are often identifiable by their green coloration.[69][70] The growth rate is maximized at about −13 °C (9 °F), and becomes vanishingly small much below −30 °C (−22 °F) as supercooled water droplets become rare. For this reason, hail is most common within continental interiors of the mid-latitudes, as hail formation is considerably more likely when the freezing level is below the altitude of 11,000 feet (3,400 m).[71] Entrainment of dry air into strong thunderstorms over continents can increase the frequency of hail by promoting evaporational cooling which lowers the freezing level of thunderstorm clouds giving hail a larger volume to grow in. Accordingly, hail is actually less common in the tropics despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in the mid-latitudes because the atmosphere over the tropics tends to be warmer over a much greater depth. Hail in the tropics occurs mainly at higher elevations.[72]

Snow Main articles: Snow and Snowflake

Snowflakes by Wilson Bentley, 1902. Snow crystals form when tiny supercooled cloud droplets (about 10 μm in diameter) freeze. These droplets are able to remain liquid at temperatures lower than −18 °C (255 K; 0 °F), because to freeze, a few molecules in the droplet need to get together by chance to form an arrangement similar to that in an ice lattice; then the droplet freezes around this "nucleus". Experiments show that this "homogeneous" nucleation of cloud droplets only occurs at temperatures lower than −35 °C (238 K; −31 °F).[73] In warmer clouds an aerosol particle or "ice nucleus" must be present in (or in contact with) the droplet to act as a nucleus. Our understanding of what particles make efficient ice nuclei is poor – what we do know is they are very rare compared to that cloud condensation nuclei on which liquid droplets form. Clays, desert dust and biological particles may be effective,[74] although to what extent is unclear. Artificial nuclei are used in cloud seeding.[75] The droplet then grows by condensation of water vapor onto the ice surfaces.

Diamond dust Main article: Diamond dust So-called "diamond dust", also known as ice needles or ice crystals, forms at temperatures approaching −40 °C (−40 °F) due to air with slightly higher moisture from aloft mixing with colder, surface-based air.[76] The METAR identifier for diamond dust within international hourly weather reports is IC.[62]

Ablation Main article: Ablation Ablation of ice refers to both its melting and its dissolution.

The melting of ice means entails the breaking of hydrogen bonds between the water molecules. The ordering of the molecules in the solid breaks down to a less ordered state and the solid melts to become a liquid. This is achieved by increasing the internal energy of the ice beyond the melting point. When ice melts it absorbs as much energy as would be required to heat an equivalent amount of water by 80 °C. While melting, the temperature of the ice surface remains constant at 0 °C. The rate of the melting process depends on the efficiency of the energy exchange process. An ice surface in fresh water melts solely by free convection with a rate that depends linearly on the water temperature, T∞, when T∞ is less than 3.98 °C, and superlinearly when T∞ is equal to or greater than 3.98 °C, with the rate being proportional to (T∞ − 3.98 °C)α, with α = 5 / 3

for T∞ much greater than 8 °C, and α = 

4 / 3

for in between temperatures T∞.[77]

In salty ambient conditions, dissolution rather than melting often causes the ablation of ice. For example, the temperature of the Arctic Ocean is generally below the melting point of ablating sea ice. The phase transition from solid to liquid is achieved by mixing salt and water molecules, similar to the dissolution of sugar in water, even though the water temperature is far below the melting point of the sugar. Thus the dissolution rate is limited by salt transport whereas melting can occur at much higher rates that are characteristic for heat transport.[clarification needed][78]

Role in human activities Humans have used ice for cooling and food preservation for centuries, relying on harvesting natural ice in various forms and then transitioning to the mechanical production of the material. Ice also presents a challenge to transportation in various forms and a setting for winter sports.

Cooling Ice has long been valued as a means of cooling. In 400 BC Iran, Persian engineers had already mastered the technique of storing ice in the middle of summer in the desert. The ice was brought in from ice pools or during the winters from nearby mountains in bulk amounts, and stored in specially designed, naturally cooled refrigerators, called yakhchal (meaning ice storage). This was a large underground space (up to 5000 m3) that had thick walls (at least two meters at the base) made of a special mortar called sarooj, composed of sand, clay, egg whites, lime, goat hair, and ash in specific proportions, and which was known to be resistant to heat transfer. This mixture was thought to be completely water impenetrable. The space often had access to a qanat, and often contained a system of windcatchers which could easily bring temperatures inside the space down to frigid levels on summer days. The ice was used to chill treats for royalty.

Harvesting Main article: Ice cutting

Harvesting ice on Lake St. Clair in Michigan, c. 1905 There were thriving industries in 16th–17th century England whereby low-lying areas along the Thames Estuary were flooded during the winter, and ice harvested in carts and stored inter-seasonally in insulated wooden houses as a provision to an icehouse often located in large country houses, and widely used to keep fish fresh when caught in distant waters. This was allegedly copied by an Englishman who had seen the same activity in China. Ice was imported into England from Norway on a considerable scale as early as 1823.[79]

In the United States, the first cargo of ice was sent from New York City to Charleston, South Carolina, in 1799,[79] and by the first half of the 19th century, ice harvesting had become a big business. Frederic Tudor, who became known as the "Ice King", worked on developing better insulation products for long distance shipments of ice, especially to the tropics; this became known as the ice trade.

Trieste sent ice to Egypt, Corfu, and Zante; Switzerland, to France; and Germany sometimes was supplied from Bavarian lakes.[79] The Hungarian Parliament building used ice harvested in the winter from Lake Balaton for air conditioning.

Ice houses were used to store ice formed in the winter, to make ice available all year long, and an early type of refrigerator known as an icebox was cooled using a block of ice placed inside it. In many cities, it was not unusual to have a regular ice delivery service during the summer. The advent of artificial refrigeration technology has since made delivery of ice obsolete.

Ice is still harvested for ice and snow sculpture events. For example, a swing saw is used to get ice for the Harbin International Ice and Snow Sculpture Festival each year from the frozen surface of the Songhua River.[80]

Artificial production The earliest known written process to artificially make ice is by the 13th-century writings of Arab historian Ibn Abu Usaybia in his book Kitab Uyun al-anba fi tabaqat-al-atibba concerning medicine in which Ibn Abu Usaybi’a attributes the process to an even older author, Ibn Bakhtawayhi, of whom nothing is known.[81]

Mechanical production

Layout of a late 19th-Century ice factory Ice is now produced on an industrial scale, for uses including food storage and processing, chemical manufacturing, concrete mixing and curing, and consumer or packaged ice.[82] Most commercial icemakers produce three basic types of fragmentary ice: flake, tubular and plate, using a variety of techniques.[82] Large batch ice makers can produce up to 75 tons of ice per day.[83] In 2002, there were 426 commercial ice-making companies in the United States, with a combined value of shipments of $595,487,000.[84] Home refrigerators can also make ice with a built in icemaker, which will typically make ice cubes or crushed ice. Stand-alone icemaker units that make ice cubes are often called ice machines.

Transportation

This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ice can present challenges to safe transportation on land, sea and in the air.

Land travel

Loss of control on ice by an articulated bus Ice forming on roads is a dangerous winter hazard. Black ice is very difficult to see, because it lacks the expected frosty surface. Whenever there is freezing rain or snow which occurs at a temperature near the melting point, it is common for ice to build up on the windows of vehicles. Driving safely requires the removal of the ice build-up. Ice scrapers are tools designed to break the ice free and clear the windows, though removing the ice can be a long and laborious process.

Far enough below the freezing point, a thin layer of ice crystals can form on the inside surface of windows. This usually happens when a vehicle has been left alone after being driven for a while, but can happen while driving, if the outside temperature is low enough. Moisture from the driver's breath is the source of water for the crystals. It is troublesome to remove this form of ice, so people often open their windows slightly when the vehicle is parked in order to let the moisture dissipate, and it is now common for cars to have rear-window defrosters to solve the problem. A similar problem can happen in homes, which is one reason why many colder regions require double-pane windows for insulation.

When the outdoor temperature stays below freezing for extended periods, very thick layers of ice can form on lakes and other bodies of water, although places with flowing water require much colder temperatures. The ice can become thick enough to drive onto with automobiles and trucks. Doing this safely requires a thickness of at least 30 cm (11+3⁄4 in).

Water-borne travel

Channel through ice for ship traffic on Lake Huron with ice breakers in background For ships, ice presents two distinct hazards. First, spray and freezing rain can produce an ice build-up on the superstructure of a vessel sufficient to make it unstable, and to require it to be hacked off or melted with steam hoses. Second, icebergs – large masses of ice floating in water (typically created when glaciers reach the sea) – can be dangerous if struck by a ship when underway. Icebergs have been responsible for the sinking of many ships, the most famous being the Titanic. For harbors near the poles, being ice-free, ideally all year long, is an important advantage. Examples are Murmansk (Russia), Petsamo (Russia, formerly Finland), and Vardø (Norway). Harbors which are not ice-free are opened up using icebreakers.

Air travel Main article: Icing conditions

Rime ice on the leading edge of an aircraft wing, partially released by the black pneumatic boot. For aircraft, ice can cause a number of dangers. As an aircraft climbs, it passes through air layers of different temperature and humidity, some of which may be conducive to ice formation. If ice forms on the wings or control surfaces, this may adversely affect the flying qualities of the aircraft. During the first non-stop flight across the Atlantic, the British aviators Captain John Alcock and Lieutenant Arthur Whitten Brown encountered such icing conditions – Brown left the cockpit and climbed onto the wing several times to remove ice which was covering the engine air intakes of the Vickers Vimy aircraft they were flying.

One vulnerability effected by icing that is associated with reciprocating internal combustion engines is the carburetor. As air is sucked through the carburetor into the engine, the local air pressure is lowered, which causes adiabatic cooling. Thus, in humid near-freezing conditions, the carburetor will be colder, and tend to ice up. This will block the supply of air to the engine, and cause it to fail. For this reason, aircraft reciprocating engines with carburetors are provided with carburetor air intake heaters. The increasing use of fuel injection—which does not require carburetors—has made "carb icing" less of an issue for reciprocating engines.

Jet engines do not experience carb icing, but recent evidence indicates that they can be slowed, stopped, or damaged by internal icing in certain types of atmospheric conditions much more easily than previously believed. In most cases, the engines can be quickly restarted and flights are not endangered, but research continues to determine the exact conditions which produce this type of icing, and find the best methods to prevent, or reverse it, in flight.

Recreation and sports Main article: Ice sports

Skating fun by 17th century Dutch painter Hendrick Avercamp Ice also plays a central role in winter recreation and in many sports such as ice skating, tour skating, ice hockey, bandy, ice fishing, ice climbing, curling, broomball and sled racing on bobsled, luge and skeleton. Many of the different sports played on ice get international attention every four years during the Winter Olympic Games.

A sort of sailboat on blades gives rise to ice yachting. Another sport is ice racing, where drivers must speed on lake ice, while also controlling the skid of their vehicle (similar in some ways to dirt track racing). The sport has even been modified for ice rinks.

Other uses As thermal ballast Ice is used to cool and preserve food in iceboxes. Ice cubes or crushed ice can be used to cool drinks. As the ice melts, it absorbs heat and keeps the drink near 0 °C (32 °F). Ice can be used as part of an air conditioning system, using battery- or solar-powered fans to blow hot air over the ice. This is especially useful during heat waves when power is out and standard (electrically powered) air conditioners do not work. Ice can be used (like other cold packs) to reduce swelling (by decreasing blood flow) and pain by pressing it against an area of the body.[85] As structural material

Ice pier during 1983 cargo operations. McMurdo Station, Antarctica Engineers used the substantial strength of pack ice when they constructed Antarctica's first floating ice pier in 1973.[86] Such ice piers are used during cargo operations to load and offload ships. Fleet operations personnel make the floating pier during the winter. They build upon naturally occurring frozen seawater in McMurdo Sound until the dock reaches a depth of about 22 feet (6.7 m). Ice piers have a lifespan of three to five years.

An ice-made dining room of the Kemi's SnowCastle ice hotel in Finland Structures and ice sculptures are built out of large chunks of ice or by spraying water[87] The structures are mostly ornamental (as in the case with ice castles), and not practical for long-term habitation. Ice hotels exist on a seasonal basis in a few cold areas. Igloos are another example of a temporary structure, made primarily from snow. In cold climates, roads are regularly prepared on iced-over lakes and archipelago areas. Temporarily, even a railroad has been built on ice.[87] During World War II, Project Habbakuk was an Allied programme which investigated the use of pykrete (wood fibers mixed with ice) as a possible material for warships, especially aircraft carriers, due to the ease with which a vessel immune to torpedoes, and a large deck, could be constructed by ice. A small-scale prototype was built,[88] but the need for such a vessel in the war was removed prior to building it in full-scale. Ice has even been used as the material for a variety of musical instruments, for example by percussionist Terje Isungset.[89] Non-water Main article: Volatiles The solid phases of several other volatile substances are also referred to as ices; generally a volatile is classed as an ice if its melting point lies above or around 100 K. The best known example is dry ice, the solid form of carbon dioxide.

A "magnetic analogue" of ice is also realized in some insulating magnetic materials in which the magnetic moments mimic the position of protons in water ice and obey energetic constraints similar to the Bernal-Fowler ice rules arising from the geometrical frustration of the proton configuration in water ice. These materials are called spin ice.

See also icon Water portal Density of ice versus water – Physical and chemical properties of pure water Ice famine – Historical scarcity of commercial ice Ice jacking – Structural damage caused by the expansion of freezing water in a confined space Ice road – Path made over frozen water rather than land Jumble ice – Irregular jagged ice formed over water Pumpable ice technology – Type of technology to produce and use fluids or secondary refrigerants Ice crystal – Solid frozen water molecules References

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Professional mountain guides or rock climbing guides (e.g. the UIAGM), were a significant element in developing the popularity of the sport in the natural environment, and remain so today. Since the 1980s, the development of competition climbing and the availability of artificial climbing walls have dramatically increased the popularity of rock climbing as a sport, and led to the emergence of professional rock climbers, such as Wolfgang Güllich, Chris Sharma, Adam Ondra, Lynn Hill, Catherine Destivelle, and Janja Garnbret.

Climbing became an Olympic sport for the first time in the 2021 Olympic Games in Tokyo (see Sport climbing at the 2020 Summer Olympics) for sport climbing and speed climbing disciplines.^[1]

Rock-based

Rock climbing can trace its origins to the late 19th-century, and has since developed into a number of main sub-disciplines (single-pitch, multi-pitch/big wall, bouldering, and competition), which in themselves can be conducted in varying manners (aid, sport, traditional and free solo):

• Single pitch climbing means ascending climbs that are a single rope-length (up to 50-metres) while big wall climbing (and multi-pitch climbing) means ascending routes that are many rope-lengths (can be up to 1,000-metres). These two rock climbing sub-disciplines can be conducted in one of a number of ways:
  • Aid climbing is a form of rock climbing that uses artificial aids such as ladders, pitons, and other mechanical devices to assist in ascending a route. Much of rock climbing began as aid climbing, and even up until the 1970s, many big wall route required aid climbing techniques.
  • Sport climbing is a form of rock climbing that uses no artificial aids (which is known as free climbing), but does rely on permanent fixed bolts (or other mechanical anchors), for use as protection while climbing (but not as aid); was started in the 1980s in France.
  • Traditional climbing is a form of rock climbing that uses no artificial aids (and is thus free climbing) but unlike sport climbing, the climbers place removable protection such as camming devices and nuts, while ascending the route, which is then removed by the second climber.
  • Free soloing is a form of rock climbing that uses no artificial aids (and is thus free climbing) and where the climber uses no protection (neither sport nor traditional); thus any fall while free soloing could be fatal; deep-water soloing is a form of free soloing where a fall will result in landing into safe water.
  • Top rope climbing is a form of rock climbing that uses no artificial aids but as the sole form of protection, uses a pre-fixed rope secured to the top of the route (i.e. is used on single-pitches), and thus should the climber fall, they simply hang off the rope with no risk of any injury; it is not regarded as free climbing.
• Bouldering: means ascending boulders or small outcrops with no artificial aids (it is free climbing) and due to the lower height, with no protection (i.e. bouldering is a form of free soloing); very tall boulders where a fall could be serious (i.e. up to 10-metres) are known as highball bouldering.
• Competition climbing: A formal, competitive sport of recent origins from the 1980s, normally practiced as indoor climbing on artificial climbing walls that resemble natural formations. The International Federation of Sport Climbing (IFSC) is the official governing body for competition rock climbing worldwide and is recognized by the IOC and GAISF and is a member of the International World Games Association (IWGA). The UIAA is the official governing body for competition ice climbing worldwide. Competition rock climbing has three major disciplines: Lead climbing (performed as sport climbing), Bouldering, and Speed climbing (performed as top roping)

Other mountain-based

• Ice climbing: Ascending ice or hard snow using equipment such as ice axes and crampons, but also equipment from rock climbing such as ropes.
• Mixed climbing: Ascending routes that required a combination of ice climbing and rock climbing skills (often known as Alpine climbing).
• Mountaineering: Ascending mountains for sport or recreation, which can often involve rock or ice climbing (e.g. Alpine or Himalayan climbing).
• Scrambling: Climbing rocky faces and ridges, which can include basic rock climbing, but is considered part of hillwalking.
• Solo climbing: Ascending routes alone; can involve ropes (roped solo climbing) and artificial aid; where no protection or aid is used, it is free soloing.

Other recreational-based

• Buildering: Ascending the exterior skeletons of buildings, typically without protective equipment (e.g. as free solo climbing by Alain Robert).
• Canyoneering: Climbing along canyons for sport or recreation.
• Crane climbing: An illicit act of climbing up mechanical cranes, which is a form of buildering.
• Grass climbing: An older form of climbing when climbing steep but grassy mountainsides, often requiring ropes, was undertaken.
• Mallakhamba: A traditional Indian sport that combines climbing a pole or rope with the performance of aerial yoga and gymnastics.
• Parkour: A sport based around smooth movement, including climbing, around urban landscapes.
• Pole climbing: Climbing poles and masts without equipment.
• Rope climbing: Climbing a short, thick rope for speed; not to be confused with roped climbing, as used in rock or ice climbing.
• Stair climbing: ascending elevation via stairs.
• Tree climbing: Recreationally ascending trees using ropes and other protective equipment.

Commercial-based

• Rope access: Industrial climbing, usually abseiling, as an alternative to scaffolding for short works on exposed structures.
• A tower climber is a professional who climbs broadcasting or telecommunication towers or masts for maintenance or repair.

In film

Climbing has been the subject of both film and documentary film with notable examples being Touching the Void, Everest, Cliffhanger and Free Solo.

In popular culture

At several locations there is climbing as part of a ritual performed. These are among others:

• Oeli, Zurich, Switzerland: a taverne where a drinking game is made where one has to climb up to a beam at the ceiling and move to another beam and then to drink a glass of wine with the head hanging down [1]
• Gänseliesel, Göttingen, Germany: it is a tradition, that students climb up the statue of this fountain and kiss it after immatriculation [2].
• Herndon Monument, Annapolis, United States: there is a tradition that the students, which finished their first study year at United States Naval Academy, replace a sailor cap on the top of Herndon Monument by a peaked cap.
• Street Parade, Zurich, Switzerland: on this event it is not incommon to climb on traffic light poles and other objects.

Gallery

• 
  Bouldering on Midnight Lightning, in Yosemite
• 
  Single pitch traditional climbing on Mirror Wall, in Ailladie, Ireland
• 
  Big wall climbing on Fitz Roy, Patagonia.
• 
  Ice climbing with ice axes and crampons.
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  Rope climbing event, Lyon