The Cloaca Maxima[n 1] (Latin: Cloāca Maxima, lit. Greatest Sewer) was one of the world's earliest sewage systems. Built during either the Roman Kingdom or early Roman Republic, it was constructed in Ancient Rome in order to drain local marshes and remove waste from the city. It carried effluent to the River Tiber, which ran beside the city.[1]
Name
The name Cloaca Maxima means "The Greatest Sewer." It was named after the Roman goddess Cloacina, whose name means "The Great Cleanser." The goddesses name comes from theLatin verb Cluo. Which means "to clean."[2]
Construction and History
According to tradition, it may have been initially constructed around 600 BC under the orders of the king of Rome, Tarquinius Priscus.[3] Livy claims that Tarquinius Priscus called in workers from Etruria and used the Plebian population of Rome to build both grand buildings, such as temples to the gods, and build less prestigious buildings, such as sewers.[4]
The Cloaca Maxima originally was built by the Etruscans as an open-air canal. Over time, the Romans covered over the canal and expanded it into a sewer system for the city.[5] Underground work is said to have been carried out on the sewer by Tarquinius Superbus, Rome's seventh and last king.[6]
From other writings and from the path that it takes, it may have started life as an open drain, formed from streams from three of the neighbouring hills, that were channelled through the main Forum and then on to the Tiber.[3] This open drain would then have been gradually built over, as building space within the city became more valuable. It is possible that both theories are correct, and certainly some of the main lower parts of the system suggest that they would have been below ground level even at the time of the supposed construction. Pliny the Elder, writing in the late 1st century, describes the early Cloaca Maxima as "large enough to allow the passage of a wagon loaded with hay".[7]
The eleven aqueducts which supplied water to Rome by the 1st century AD were finally channelled into the sewers after having supplied the many public baths such as the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Trajan, the public fountains, imperial palaces and private houses.[8][9] The continuous supply of running water helped to remove wastes and keep the sewers clear of obstructions. The best waters were reserved for potable drinking supplies, and the second quality waters would be used by the baths, the outfalls of which connected to the sewer network under the streets of the city. The aqueduct system was investigated by the general Frontinus at the end of the 1st century AD, who published his report on its state directly to the emperor Nerva.
Significance
The Cloaca Maxima was large. Strabo stated that it was big enough for "wagons loaded with hay to pass." The sewer would have rid the city of waste, carried away unwanted goods, and drained from swamps and rivers surrounding the city to prevent flooding. Depsite the scale of the sewer, some of its water was still polluted, contaminating water many depended on for irrigation.[2]This sewer was not simply a feat of engineering, but a highly valued one. The Cloaca Maxima may have even been sacrosanct. Since the Romans viewed the movement of water to be sacred, the Cloaca Maxima may have had a religious significance. Aside from religious significance the Cloaca Maxima may have praised due to its age. Livy describes the sewer as:
Works for which the new splendor of these days has scarcely been able to produce a match. — Titus Livius, Titus Livius, The History of Rome, Book 1
The writer Pliny the Elder describes the Cloaca Maxima as an engineering marvel due to its ability to withstand floods of filthy waters for centuries. Cassiodorus, a Roman senator and scholar, praised the sewage system in Variae. Anthropologist Mary Douglas claims that the Cloaca Maxima was considered a symbol of the greatness of Rome.[10]
The system of Roman sewers was much imitated throughout the Roman Empire, especially when combined with copious supplies of water from Roman aqueducts. The sewer system in Eboracum—the modern-day English city of York—was especially impressive and part of it still survives.[11]
Distribution system
The extraordinary greatness of the Roman Empire manifests itself above all in three things: the aqueducts, the paved roads, and the construction of the drains.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Ant. Rom. 3.67.5[12]
There were many branches off the main sewer, but all seemed to be 'official' drains that would have served public toilets, bath-houses and other public buildings. Private residences in Rome, even of the rich, would have relied on some sort of cess-pit arrangement for sewage. The sewer followed the natural course of the suburbs of ancient Rome. Which lied between the Qurinal, Viminal, and Esquilline Hills. It also passed by the Forum of Nerva and the Forum Romanum, ending at the Velabrum. This sewers outfall was by the Ponte Rotto and Ponte Palatino. Some of this is still visible today.[13] There is a stairway going down to it visible next to the Basilica Julia at the Forum. Some of it is also visible from the surface opposite the church of San Giorgio al Velabro.[13]
The Cloaca Maxima was well maintained throughout the life of the Roman Empire and even today drains rainwater and debris from the center of town, below the ancient Forum, Velabro and Foro Boario. In 33 BC it is known to have received an inspection and overhaul from Agrippa, and archaeology reveals several building styles and material from various ages, suggesting that the systems received regular attention. In more recent times, the remaining passages have been connected to the modern-day sewage system, mainly to cope with problems of backwash from the river.
The Romans are recorded – the veracity of the accounts depending on the case – to have dragged the bodies of a number of people to the sewers rather than give them proper burial, among them the emperor Elagabalus[14][15] and Saint Sebastian: the latter scene is the subject of a well-known painting by Lodovico Carracci
See also
Notes
- ^ Less often, Maxima Cloaca. Latin pronunciation: [kɫ̪oˈäːkä ˈmäks̠ɪma]
References
- ^ Aldrete, Gregory S. (2004). Daily life in the Roman city: Rome, Pompeii and Ostia. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33174-9, pp.34-35.
- ^ a b Zeldovich, Lina (2021-11-19). The Other Dark Matter: The Science and Business of Turning Waste into Wealth and Health. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-81422-3.
- ^ a b Waters of Rome Journal - 4 - Hopkins.indd
- ^ "Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome, Book 1, chapter 56". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2022-02-27.
- ^ Hopkins, John N. N. "The Cloaca Maxima and the Monumental Manipulation of water in Archaic Rome". Institute of the Advanced Technology in the Humanities. Web. 4/8/12
- ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.56
- ^ Plinius Secundus, Gaius, 23-79. (2014). Natural history. Harvard University Press. OCLC 967702213.
((cite book)): CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Woods, Michael (2000). Ancient medicine: from sorcery to surgery. Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 978-0-8225-2992-7, p.81.
- ^ Lançon, Bertrand (2000). Rome in late antiquity: everyday life and urban change, AD 312-609. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-92975-2, p.13.
- ^ Bradley, Mark (2012-07-26). Rome, Pollution and Propriety: Dirt, Disease and Hygiene in the Eternal City from Antiquity to Modernity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-53657-8.
- ^ Darvill, Timothy, Stamper, Paul and Timby, Jane (2002). England: an Oxford archaeological guide to sites from earliest times to AD 1600. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-284101-8, pp. 162-163.
- ^ Quilici, Lorenzo (2008): "Land Transport, Part 1: Roads and Bridges", in: Oleson, John Peter (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, New York, ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1, pp. 551–579 (552)
- ^ a b Malacrino, Carmelo G. (2010). Constructing the Ancient World: Architectural Techniques of the Greeks and Romans. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-1-60606-016-2.
- ^ Herodian, Roman History, 5.8.9
- ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2018-07-02. Retrieved 2012-12-07.
((cite web)): CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
External links
- Cloaca Maxima: article in Platner's Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome
- Pictures taken from inside the Cloaca Maxima
- Aquae Urbis Romae: The Waters of the City of Rome, Katherine W. Rinne
- The Waters of Rome: "The Cloaca Maxima and the Monumental Manipulation of Water in Archaic Rome" by John N. N. Hopkins
- Rome: Cloaca Maxima
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