Prior to the Eocene Epoch (55.8 ± 0.2 to 33.9 ± 0.1 Ma) the convergence rate of the Farallon and North American Plates was fast and the angle of subduction was shallow. During the Eocene the Farallon Platesubduction-associated compressive forces of the Laramide orogeny ended, plate interactions changed from orthogonal compression to oblique strike-slip, and volcanism in the Basin and Range Province flared up. It is suggested that this plate continued to be underthrust until about 19 Ma, at which time it was completely consumed and volcanic activity ceased, in part. Olivine basalt from the oceanic ridge erupted around 17 Ma and extension began.[2][3][4][5][6] The extension resulted in roughly north-south-trending faults, the Great Basin, the Walker trough, the Owensgraben, and the Rio Grande rift, for instance.
List of large volume eruptions in the Basin and Range Province
Yellowstone hotspot (?), Northwest Nevada volcanic field, Virgin Valley, High Rock, Hog Ranch, and unnamed calderas; West of the Pine Forest Range, Nevada; 15.5 to 16.5 Ma; Tuffs: Idaho Canyon, Ashdown, Summit Lake, and Soldier Meadow.[14][15][16][17][18]
Columbia River Basalt Province: Yellowstone hotspot releases a huge pulse of volcanic activity, the first eruptions were near the Oregon-Idaho-Washington border. Columbia River and Steens flood basalts, Pueblo Mountains, Steens Mountain, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho; most vigorous eruptions were from 14 to 17 Ma.[8]
Steens flood basalts, 65,000 km3 (16,000 cu mi)[19][22][23]
Mount Belknap Caldera (17 km × 12 km (10.6 mi × 7.5 mi)), Marysvale Volcanic Field, southwestern Utah; 19 Ma; 150 km3 (36 cu mi) of tephra (Joe Lott member).[8][24]
Big John Caldera (10 km × 6 km (6.2 mi × 3.7 mi)), Marysvale Volcanic Field, southwestern Utah; 22 Ma; 50 km3 (12 cu mi) of Delano Peak Tuff member.[8]
Monroe Peak Caldera (20 km × 16 km (12.4 mi × 9.9 mi)), Marysvale Volcanic Field, southwestern Utah; 23 Ma; 200 km3 (48 cu mi) of Osiris Tuff.[8][24]
Lake City calderas (20 km (12 mi) wide), San Juan volcanic field, Colorado; 23.1 Ma; 300 km3 (72 cu mi) of Sunshine Peak Tuff.[8][25][26]
Turkey Creek Caldera (25 km (16 mi) wide), Chiricahua National Monument, Arizona; 25 Ma; 500 km3 (120 cu mi) of Rhyolite Canyon Formation.[8][27]
Lake City calderas (25 km (16 mi) wide), San Juan volcanic field, Colorado; 25.9 Ma; 200 to 500 km3 (48 to 120 cu mi) of tephra.[8][28]
San Luis caldera complex (18 km (11 mi) wide), Wheeler Geologic Area, San Juan volcanic field, Colorado; 26.8 Ma, 562 km3 (135 cu mi) of Nelson Mountain Tuff.[8][28]
San Luis caldera complex (18 km (11 mi) wide), Wheeler Geologic Area, San Juan volcanic field, Colorado; 26.9 Ma, 250 km3 (60 cu mi) of Cebola Creek Tuff.[28]
San Luis caldera complex (18 km (11 mi) wide), Wheeler Geologic Area, San Juan volcanic field, Colorado; 27 Ma, 150 km3 (36 cu mi) of Rat Creek Tuff.[8][28]
Three Creeks Caldera (8 km (5.0 mi) wide), Marysvale Volcanic Field, Cove Fort-Sulphurdale area, southwestern Utah; 27 Ma; 100 to 200 km3 (24 to 48 cu mi) of Three Creeks Tuff Member of the Bullion Canyon Volcanics.[8][24]
South River Caldera, Wheeler Geologic Area, San Juan volcanic field, Colorado; 27.1 Ma, more than 500 km3 (120 cu mi) of Wason Park Tuff.[8][28]
Central San Juan Caldera (concealed), San Juan volcanic field, Colorado; 27.2 Ma, 250 km3 (60 cu mi) of Blue Creek Tuff.[8][28]
Bachelor Caldera (20 km × 28 km (12 mi × 17 mi)), Wheeler Geologic Area, San Juan volcanic field, Colorado; 27.35 Ma; 1,200 km3 (290 cu mi) of Carpenter Ridge Tuff.[29]
Silverton Caldera (20 km (12 mi) wide), San Juan volcanic field, Colorado; 27.6 Ma, 50 to 100 km3 (12 to 24 cu mi) of Crystal Lake Tuff.[8][28]
La Garita Caldera (100 km × 35 km (62 mi × 22 mi)), Wheeler Geologic Area, San Juan volcanic field, Colorado; VEI 8; more than 5,000 km3 (1,200 cu mi) of Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in a major single eruption about 27.8 Ma.[29][30][31]
San Juan Caldera (22 km × 24 km (14 mi × 15 mi)), San Juan volcanic field, Colorado; 28 Ma; more than 1,000 km3 (240 cu mi) of Sapinero Mesa Tuff.[8]
Uncompahgre Caldera (23 km × 20 km (14 mi × 12 mi)), Uncompahgre National Forest, San Juan volcanic field, Colorado; 28.1 Ma; more than 1,000 km3 (240 cu mi) of Dillon/Sapinero Mesa Tuffs.[8][32]
Lost Lake Caldera (10 km (6.2 mi) wide), San Juan volcanic field, Colorado; 28.2 Ma, 100 to 500 km3 (24 to 120 cu mi) of Blue Mesa Tuff.[8]
Platoro calderas, San Juan volcanic field, Platoro, Conejos County, Colorado; 28.2 Ma; 1,000 km3 (240 cu mi) of Chiquito Peak Tuff.[8]
Central San Juan Caldera (concealed), San Juan volcanic field, Colorado; 28.3 Ma; 500 km3 (120 cu mi) of Masonic Park Tuff.[8][28]
Ute Creek Caldera, Central Colorado volcanic field, Colorado; 28.3 Ma; 500 km3 (120 cu mi) of Ute Ridge Tuff.[8][33]
Large volume eruptions of the Southwestern Nevada volcanic field (SWNVF)
Bursum Caldera (size: 40 x 30 km), Mogollon-Datil volcanic field, New Mexico; 28.5 Ma ±0.5; 1,200 cubic kilometres (290 cu mi) of Apache Springs Tuff.[8][35]
San Juan Caldera (size: 24 x 22 km), San Juan volcanic field, Colorado; 28.5 Ma; 900 cubic kilometres (220 cu mi) of tephra.[8][32]
Summitville Caldera (size: 12 x 8 km), San Juan volcanic field, Colorado; 28.5 Ma; 100 to 500 cubic kilometers (24 to 120 cu mi) of Ojito Creek/ La Jadero Tuffs.[8][36][37]
Mount Hope (size: 15 km), San Juan volcanic field, Colorado; 29 Ma; 500 cubic kilometres (120 cu mi) of Masonic Park Tuff.[8][25]
Around White Rock caldera (size: 50 km North-South), White Rock Mountains, Great Basin, Nevada; 29.02 Ma ±0.04; 2,600 cubic kilometres (620 cu mi) of Lund Tuff.[8][38]
Ute Creek (size: 8 km wide), San Juan volcanic field, Colorado; 29 Ma; 500 cubic kilometres (120 cu mi) of Ute Ridge Tuff.[8][25]
Platoro calderas (size: 12 x 18 km), San Juan volcanic field, Platoro, Conejos County, Colorado; 29.5 Ma; 500 cubic kilometers (120 cu mi) of Black Mountain Tuff.[8][36][37]
Indian Peak, Eastern Nevada; 29.5 Ma; more than 3,200 cubic kilometers (768 cu mi) of Wah Wah Springs Tuff.[8][39]
Platoro calderas (size: 18 x 22 km), San Juan volcanic field, Platoro, Conejos County, Colorado; 30 Ma; 592 cubic kilometers (142 cu mi) of La Jara Canyon Tuff.[8][29][36]
Goodsight-Cedar Hills volcano-tectonic depression (Bell Top Formation), south-central New Mexico; 30.5 Ma ±1.5, 295 cubic kilometres (71 cu mi) of tephra (Bell Top Formation).[8][40]
William's Ridge, Central Nevada; 31.4 Ma; 3,500 cubic kilometres (840 cu mi) of Windous Butte Tuff.[8][41]
North Pass Caldera, Cochetopa Hills, Central Colorado volcanic field; 32.25 Ma; 400 to 500 cubic kilometers (96 to 120 cu mi) of Saguache Creek Tuff.[8][42]
Organ Caldera (size: 16 km wide), Organ Mountains, New Mexico; 32 Ma, 500 cubic kilometres (120 cu mi) of Cueva Soledad Rhyolite.[8][40]
Chinati Caldera (size: 30 x 20 km), Chinati Mountains, Texas; 32.5 Ma ±0.5, 1,000 cubic kilometres (240 cu mi) of Mitchel Mesa Rhyolite.[8][43]
Bonanza (size: 12 km wide), Central Colorado volcanic field; Colorado; 32.5 Ma, more than 100 cubic kilometres (24 cu mi) of Bonanza Tuff.[8][44]
Marshall Creek, Thirtynine Mile volcanic area, Central Colorado volcanic field; Colorado; 33.7 Ma; more than 100 cubic kilometres (24 cu mi) of Thorn Ranch Tuff.[8][51]
Mount Aetna (size: 10 km wide), Central Colorado volcanic field; Colorado; 33.81 Ma, 100 cubic kilometres (24 cu mi) of Badger Creek Tuff.[8][52]
Grizzly Peak Caldera (size: 12 km wide), Central Colorado volcanic field; Colorado; 34.31 Ma; 100 cubic kilometres (24 cu mi) of Grizzly Peak Rhyolite.[8][52]
Juniper Caldera (size: 25 km), Animas Mountains, Hidalgo County, New Mexico; 35 Ma; 500 cubic kilometres (120 cu mi) of Oak Creek Tuff.[8][45]
Mount Princeton (eroded), Central Colorado volcanic field; Colorado; 35.3 Ma ±0.6; more than 1,000 cubic kilometres (240 cu mi) of Wall Mountain Tuff.[8][44][53]
Davis Mountains, Texas; 35.35 Ma ±0.6; 210 cubic kilometres (50 cu mi) of tuffs of Wild Cherry, Lavas of Casket Mountain.[8][54]
Davis Mountains, Texas; 35.61 Ma ±0.09; 200 cubic kilometres (48 cu mi) of Barrel Springs Formation and ash flow tuff.[8][54]
Quitman Caldera (size: 15 x 10 km), Quitman Mountains, Hudspeth County, Texas; 36 Ma; 300 cubic kilometres (72 cu mi) of Square Peak Volcanics.[8][24]
Davis Mountains, Texas; 36.2 Ma ±0.6; 300 cubic kilometres (72 cu mi) of Mafic lavas.[8][54]
Davis Mountains, Texas; 36.33 Ma ±0.13; 150 cubic kilometres (36 cu mi) of tephra (Paisano Volcano).[8][54]
Davis Mountains, Texas; 36.51 Ma ±0.05; 210 cubic kilometres (50 cu mi) of Adobe Canyon and Limpia Formations.[8][54]
Davis Mountains (fissures), Texas; 36.82 Ma ±0.08; 1,250 cubic kilometres (300 cu mi) of Flood rhyolites, rhyolite domes, and Gomez Tuff.[8][54]
Muir Caldera (size: 26 x 18 km wide), Hidalgo County, New Mexico; 37 Ma; 300 cubic kilometres (72 cu mi) of Woodhaul Canyon tephra.[8][24][55]
Infernito Caldera (size: 12 km wide), Trans-Pecos, Texas; 37.5 Ma ±0.5; 70 to 100 cubic kilometers (17 to 24 cu mi) of Buckshot Tuff.[8][24]
Thomas Caldera (size: 16 x 25 km wide), Delta, Utah; 39 Ma; 400 cubic kilometres (96 cu mi) of Mount Laird Tuff.[8][24]
Twin Peaks Caldera (size: 20 km), Challis volcanic field, Custer, Idaho; 45 Ma, 500 cubic kilometres (120 cu mi) of Challis Creek Tuff.[8][56]
Van Horn cauldron complex (size: 34 x 48 km), Challis volcanic field, Custer, Idaho; 46 Ma ±0.6; unknown amount of Elis Creek Tuff.[8][57]
Silver Bell Caldera (size: 8 km wide), Arizona; 55.8 Ma; unknown amount of Mount Laird Tuff.[8][58]
Silver Bell Caldera (size: 8 km wide), Arizona; 68 Ma; 150 cubic kilometres (36 cu mi) of Lithic Tuff.[8][24]
^Tolan, T.L.; Reidel, S.P.; Beeson, M.H.; Anderson, J.L.; Fecht, K.R. & Swanson, D.A. (1989), "Revisions to the estimates of the areal extent and volume of the Columbia River Basalt Group", in Reidel, S.P. & Hooper, P.R. (eds.), Volcanism and tectonism in the Columbia River flood basalt province Spec. Paper, vol. 239, Geol. Soc. Amer., pp. 1–20
^Hart, W.K. & Carlson, R.W. (1985). "Distribution and geochronology of Steens Mountain-type basalts from the northwestern Great Basin". Isochron/West. 43: 5–10.
Best, M.G.; Scott, R.B.; Rowley, P.D.; Swadley, W.C.; Anderson, R.E.; Gromme, C.S.; Harding, A.E.; Deino, A.L.; Christiansen, E.H.; Tingey, D.G. & Sullivan, K.R. (1993), "Oligocene–Miocene caldera complexes, ash-flow sheets, and tectonism in the central and southeastern Great Basin", in Lahren, M.M.; Trexler, J.H. & Spinosa, C. (eds.), Crustal Evolution of the Great Basin and the Sierra Nevada, Field Trip Guidebook for Cordilleran/Rocky Mountain Sections of the Geol. Soc. Am., Reno: University of Nevada, pp. 285–312
Bove, D.J.; Hon, K.; Budding, K.E.; Slack, J.F.; Snee, L.W.; Yeoman, R.A. (2001). "Geochronology and geology of late Oligocene through Miocene volcanism and mineralization in the Western San Juan Mountains, Colorado". USGS Professional Paper. 1642: 1–30.
Deal, E.G.; Elston, W. E.; Elston, E.E.; Peterson, S.L.; Reiter, D. E. (1978). "Cenozoic volcanic geology of the Basin and Range province in Hidalgo County, southwestern New Mexico". New Mexico Geol. Soc. Guidebook 29th Field Conference: 219–229.
Elston, W.E.; Seager, W.R.; Clemons, R.E. (1975). "Emory cauldron, Black Range, New Mexico, source of the Kneeling Nun Tuff". Field Conf Guide, New Mexico Geological Society. 26: 283–292.
Erb, E.E. Jr. (1979). Petrologic and structural evolution of ash-flow tuff cauldrons and noncauldron related volcanic rocks in the Animas and southern Peloncillo Mountains, Hidalgo County, New Mexico. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico.
Farmer, G.L.; Broxton, D.E.; Warren, R.G.; Pickthorn, W. (1991). "Nd, Sr, and O isotopic variations in metaluminous ash-flow tuffs and related volcanic rocks at the Timber Mountains/Oasis Valley caldera complex, SW Nevada: implications for the origin and evolution of large-volume silicic magma bodies". Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology. 109 (1): 53–68. Bibcode:1991CoMP..109...53F. doi:10.1007/BF00687200. S2CID140682518.
Henry, C.D. & Price, J.G. (1984). "Variations in caldera development in the Tertiary volcanic field of trans-Pecos Texas". J. Geophys. Res. 89 (B10): 8765–8786. Bibcode:1984JGR....89.8765H. doi:10.1029/JB089iB10p08765.
Hildreth, W. (1979). "The Bishop Tuff: Evidence for the origin of compositional zonation in silicic magma chambers". Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. Geological Society of America Special Papers. 180: 43–75. doi:10.1130/spe180-p43. ISBN978-0-8137-2180-4.
Latta, J.S. IV (1983). "Geochemistry and petrology of the ash flows of Chiricahua National Monument, Arizona and their relation to the Turkey Creek Caldera". M.S. Thesis. University of Arizona, Tucson: 194.
Morgan, L.A.; Doherty, D.J.; Leeman, W.P. (1984). "Ignimbrites of the Eastern Snake River Plain: evidence for major caldera-forming eruptions". J. Geophys. Res. 89 (B10): 8665–8678. Bibcode:1984JGR....89.8665M. doi:10.1029/JB089iB10p08665.
Moye, F.J.; Hackett, W.R.; Blakley, J.D.; Snider, L.G. (1988). "Regional geologic setting and volcanic stratigraphy of the Challis Volcanic Field, Central Idaho". Idaho Geological Survey Bulletin. 27: 87–97.
Noble, D.C. (1988), "Cenozoic volcanic rocks of the northwestern Great Basin: an overview", Spring Field Trip Guidebook, Special Publication No. 7, Geological Society of Nevada, pp. 31–42
Osburn, G.R. & Chapin, C.E. (1983). "Ash-flow tuffs and cauldrons in the northeast Mogollon-Datil volcanic field: A summary". Field Conference Guide of the New Mexico Geological Society. 34: 197–204.
Min, K.; Reiners, P.W.; Nicolescu, S.; Wolff, J.A.; Mundil, R.; Winters, L.R. (2004). "(U-Th)/He dating of volcanic phenocrysts with high-(U-Th) inclusions, Bandelier Tuff, New Mexico". Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union. 85 (Abstract V43E–1450): V43E–1450. Bibcode:2004AGUFM.V43E1450M.
Sarna-Wojcicki, A.M.; Pringle, M.S.; Wijbrans, J. (2000). "New 40Ar/39Ar age of the Bishop Tuff from multiple sites and sediment rate calibration for the Matuyama-Brunhes boundary". J. Geophys. Res. 105 (B9): 21431–21443. Bibcode:2000JGR...10521431S. doi:10.1029/2000JB900901.
Seager, W.R. (1981). "Geology of Oregon Mountains and southern San Andreas Mountains, New Mexico". Memoir of the New Mexico Bureau of Mineral Resources. 36: 1–97.
Sigurdsson, H. (2000), "Volcanic episodes and rates of volcanism", in Sigurdsson, H. (ed.), Encyclopedia of volcanoes, San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 271–279
Steven, T.A. & Ratte, J.C. (1965). "Geology and structural control of ore deposition in the Creede district, San Juan Mountains, Colorado". USGS Professional Paper. 487: 90.
Varga, R.J. & Smith, B.M. (1984). "Evolution of the early oligocene Bonanza caldera, northeast San Juan volcanic field, Colorado". J. Geophys. Res. 89 (B10): 8679–8694. Bibcode:1984JGR....89.8679V. doi:10.1029/JB089iB10p08679.
Brueseke, M.E.; Heizler, M.T.; Hart, W.K. & S.A. Mertzman (15 March 2007). "Distribution and geochronology of Oregon Plateau (U.S.A.) flood basalt volcanism: The Steens Basalt revisited". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 161 (3): 187–214. Bibcode:2007JVGR..161..187B. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2006.12.004.
Camp, V.E. & Ross, M.E. (2000). "Mapping the Steens-Columbia River Basalt Connection: Implications for the extent, volume, and magma supply rate of CRB volcanism". Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr. Programs. 32: A159.
Carson, Robert J.; Pogue, Kevin R. (1996). Flood Basalts and Glacier Floods:Roadside Geology of Parts of Walla Walla, Franklin, and Columbia Counties, Washington. Washington State Department of Natural Resources (Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources Information Circular 90). ISBN none.
Jarboe, N.A.; Coe, R.S.; Renne, P.R.; Glen, J.M. (2006). "40Ar/39Ar ages of the Early Columbia River Basalt Group: Determining the Steens Mountain Geomagnetic Polarity Reversal (R0-N0) as the top of the C5Cr Chron and the Imnaha Normal (N0) as the C5Cn.3n Chron". Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union. 87 (Abstract V51D–1702): V51D–1702. Bibcode:2006AGUFM.V51D1702J.
Reidel, Stephen P. (January 2005). A Lava Flow without a Source: The Cohasset Flow and Its Compositional Members. The Journal of Geology, Volume 113, Pp 1 – 21. ISBN none.
Lipman, Peter W.; Prostka, H.J.; Christiansen, R.L. (1972). "Cenozoic volcanism and plate-tectonic evolution of the Western United States: I. Early and middle Cenozoic". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 271 (1213): 217–248. Bibcode:1972RSPTA.271..217L. doi:10.1098/rsta.1972.0008. JSTOR74007. S2CID91504527.
R. L. Christiansen & P. W. Lipman (1972). "Cenozoic Volcanism and Plate-Tectonic Evolution of the Western United States. II. Late Cenozoic". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 271 (1213): 249–284. Bibcode:1972RSPTA.271..249C. doi:10.1098/rsta.1972.0009. JSTOR74008. S2CID91755783.
Lipman, Peter W.; Steven, T.A.; Luedke, R.G.; Burbank, W.S. (1973). "Revised volcanic history of the San Juan, Uncompahgre, Silverton, and Lake City calderas in the western San Juan Mountains, Colorado". J. Res. U. S. Geol. Surv. 1: 627–642.
Lipman, Peter W. (1975). "Evolution of the Platoro caldera complex and related volcanic rocks, southeastern San Juan Mountains, Colorado". USGS Professional Paper. 852: 1–128.
Steven, T.A. & Lipman, Peter W. (1976). "Calderas of the San Juan volcanic field, southwestern Colorado". USGS Professional Paper. 958: 35.
Lipman, Peter W. & Mehnert, H.H. (1979), "The Taos Plateau volcanic field, northern Rio Grande rift, New Mexico", in Riecker, R.E. (ed.), Rio Grande rift – Tectonics and magmatism, Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union, pp. 289–311
Sawyer, D.A. & Lipman, Peter W. (1983). "Silver Bell Mountains, Arizona- porphyry copper mineralization in a late Cretaceous caldera". Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union. 64: 874.
Thompson, R.A.; Dungan, M.A.; Lipman, Peter W. (1986). "Multiple differentiation processes in early-rift calc-alkaline volcanics, northern Rio Grande rift, New Mexico". Journal of Geophysical Research. 91 (B6): 6046–6058. Bibcode:1986JGR....91.6046T. doi:10.1029/JB091iB06p06046.
Lipman, Peter W. & Reed, J.C. Jr. (1989). "Geologic map of the Latir volcanic field and adjacent areas, northern New Mexico". U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Series. Map I-1907 (Scale 1:48000).
Hon, K. & Lipman, Peter W. (1989), "Western San Juan caldera complex", in Lipman, Peter W. (ed.), Excursion 16B: Oligocene-Miocene San Juan volcanic field, Colorado, vol. 46, New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources Memoir, pp. 350–380
Lipman, Peter W. & W. S. Baldridge (1990), "Taos, New Mexico", in C. A. Wood & J. Kienle (eds.), Volcanoes of North America, Cambridge University Press, pp. 290–292
Lipman, Peter W. & Glazner, Allen F. (1991), "Introduction to middle Tertiary Cordilleran volcanism—Magma sources and relations to regional tectonics", Journal of Geophysical Research, 96 (B8): 13193–13199, Bibcode:1991JGR....9613193L, doi:10.1029/91JB01397
Lipman, Peter W.; Dungan, M.A.; Brown, L.L.; Deino, A.L. (1996). "Recurrent eruption and subsidence at the Platoro Caldera complex, southeastern San Juan volcanic field, Colorado; new tales from old tuffs". Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 108 (8): 1039–1055. Bibcode:1996GSAB..108.1039L. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1996)108<1039:reasat>2.3.co;2.
Lipman, Peter W. (2000), "Calderas", in Sigurdsson, H. (ed.), Encyclopedia of volcanoes, San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 643–662, ISBN978-0-12-643140-7
Lipman, Peter W. & Calvert, A. (2003). "Southward migration of mid-Tertiary volcanism: Relations in the Cochetopa Area, North-Central San Juan Mountains, Colorado". Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr. Programs. 35: 14.
Peter W. Lipman; William C. McIntosh (July 2008). "Eruptive and noneruptive calderas, northeastern San Juan Mountains, Colorado: Where did the ignimbrites come from?". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 120 (7–8): 771–795. Bibcode:2008GSAB..120..771L. doi:10.1130/B26330.1.
Steve Ludington; Dennis P. Cox; Kenneth W. Leonard & Barry C. Moring (1996), "Chapter 5, Cenozoic Volcanic Geology in Nevada", in Donald A. Singer (ed.), An Analysis of Nevada's Metal-Bearing Mineral Resources, Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, retrieved 2010-03-23