Metanoia, a transliteration of the Greek μετάνοια, can be defined as "a transformative change of heart; especially: a spiritual conversion."[1] In The King James Version of the Bible, its verbal cognate metanoeo/μετανοέω is translated as repent.[2]
The term suggests repudiation, change of mind, repentance, and atonement; but "conversion" and "reformation" may best approximate its connotation.[3]
Metanoia means afterthought, from meta meaning "after" or "beyond" and nous meaning "mind". In Classical Greek metanoia meant changing one's mind about someone or something.[4] "The elements of repentance, regret, reflection, and transformation are always present in the concept of metanoia to some degree, ..."[5]
Modern English translations of the Greek New Testament use the word "repentance" for both the word metanoia and metamelomai. The former term is so translated almost ten times as often as the latter.[4]
In Matthew 27:3 uses the Greek verb metamellomai in stating that Judas "repented himself" after he saw Jesus being led away. Metamelomai denotes "painful sorrow" or "remorseful regret." Metamelomai is the equivalent of the words Repent or Repentance."[6] Biblical scholar A. T. Robertson observes that Judas had only sorrow and regret and "mere sorrow avails nothing unless it leads to change of mind and life [metanoia]."[7]
The noun metanoia/μετάνοια, is translated "repentance," and its cognate verb metanoeō/μετανοέω is translated "repent" in twenty two instances in the King James Version of the New Testament.
Abid Rogers Bhatti in his book A Textbook of Soteriology writes about the meaning of metanoia/µetανοια. In the Urdu Bible, the word for “repentance” is “toba.” Toba means regret, grief, and sorrow over sinful deeds that lead to a change of mind and life. Abid agrees with Tertullian[11] in preferring “conversion” rather than “repentance” to translate metanoia/µetανοια in Mark 1:4. In summary, Abid believes that “conversion” (rather than “repentance”) is the best English word to express the meaning of the Greek metanoia/µetανοια.[citation needed]
The Acts of Peter ties metanoia to the cross on which Peter was crucified. While Peter was being crucified, he explained parts of the cross from which he was hanging, including “the nail which holds the cross beam to the upright in the middle.” This nail is “the conversion [epistrophē] and repentance [metanoia] of man.”[12]
According to David N. Wilkin, "The Latin Fathers translated metanoia as paenitentia, which came to mean "penance" or "acts of penance." They felt that in order to obtain eternal salvation men had to perform righteous acts of penance as prescribed by one's confessor priest."[4]
Ulrich Wilckens finds in Peter’s sermon in Acts 2:38-40 as narrated by Luke the Evangelist, six steps that are required for a person’s salvation. Metanoia is step number one and is essential because the other steps are contingent on a person’s experiencing metanoia. Wilckens believes that this is the normative way to salvation in Luke’s theology.[17]
In his 1881 study The Great Meaning of the Word Metanoia, Treadwell Walden, former minister of St. Paul's Church, Boston, asserts that metanoia conveys the essence of the Christian gospel. Therefore, Walden holds that no word in the New Testament can be greater than metanoia.[18]Translating metanoia as repentance has been deemed "an utter mistranslation."[19][20]
The meaning of the Greek metanoia/μετάνοια is very different from the meaning of the English repentance, and the meaning of the Greek metanoeō/μετανοέω is very different from the meaning of the English repent. Therefore, Walden describes the translation of metanoia as repentance as "an extraordinary mistranslation."[21]
The translation of metanoia as repentance began in the 2nd century when the Greek metanoeō was translated into the Latin as poenitentiam agite.[22]
In biblical Greek, metanoeō/μετανοέω and metanoia/μετάνοια signify a "change of Mind, a change in the trend and action of the whole inner nature, intellectual, affectional and moral." This meaning of metanoia as a "transmutation" of consciousness contrasts with classical Greek in which the word expressed a superficial change of mind.[23] It was in its use in the New Testament and in writings grounded in the New Testament that the depth of metanoia increased until, in the words of Archbishop Richard C. Trench, it came "to express that mighty change in mind, heart, and life wrought by the Spirit of God."[24]
Reviewing translations of metanoeō/μετανοέω and metanoia/μετάνοια as repent or repentance, the biblical scholar J. Glentworth Butler noted that, in the Greek, there is none of the sorrow or regret contained in the words repentance and repent.[25] Repentance denotes "sorrow for what one has done or omitted to do; especially, contrition for sin."[26] Repent primarily means "to review one's actions and feel contrition or regret for something one has done or omitted to do"[27] Therefore, Butler asserts that translating metanoeō/μετανοέω and metanoia/μετάνοια as repent and repentance constitute "an utter mistranslation" that translators excuse by the fact that no English word can adequately convey the meaning of the Greek words.[28]
A. T. Robertson concurs with Butler. Regarding the translation of metanoia as repentance, Robertson calls it "a linguistic and theological tragedy."[29] Regarding John the Baptist's call to "repent" as a translation of the Greek metanoeite, Robertson quotes Broadus as saying that this is "the worst translation in the New Testament." Repent means "to be sorry," but John's call was not to be sorry, but to change mental attitudes [metanoeite] and conduct.[30]
Other scholars have characterized the translation of metanoia/μετάνοια as "repentance" with similar negativity. Repentance is an "unsuitable" translation.[31] It is "totally inadequate" to carry the meaning of metanoia.[32]
Aloys H. Dirksen in his The New Testament Concept of Metanoia argues against metanoia as merely “repentance” and for metanoia as “conversion.”[33]
Of the top-ten versions of the Bible in the United States based on unit sales, seven read "baptism of repentance" in Mark 1:4 in which "repentance" translates metanoia.[34] Three of the ten top-selling versions and another in the top-ten based on dollar sales attempt to capture the meaning of metanoia. None of them transliterate the Greek μετἀνοια as metanoia.[35]
In spite of these efforts, Wilkin forecasts that "repentance" as a translation for metanoia will likely continue in most English translations. He, therefore, advises readers to substitute "change of mind" for the words repentance and repent.[36]
Philo Judaeus of Alexandria (c. 25 BCE – c. 50 CE) depicted metanoia as “in heaven, a beautiful and especially good daughter of the Most High.” There “she entreats God Most High hourly” on behalf of people.[37]
Tertullian protested the unsuitable translation of the Greek metanoeo into the Latin paenitentiam agite by arguing that "in Greek, metanoia is not a confession of sins but a change of mind."[38] "Conversion" (from the Latin conversiōn-em turning round) with its "change in character" meaning is more nearly the equivalent of metanoia than repentance.[39] Synonyms for "conversion" include "change of heart" and "metanoia."[40]
Two key Protestant Reformation figures took up Tertullian's protest. In opposition to the Church's interpretation of metanoia as comprising contrition, confession, and penances, Martin Luther objected that it retained its classical sense of "a change of mind."[41] John Calvin pointed to the double derivation of "repentance": from the Hebrew meaning conversion, or turning again and the Greek [metanoia] meaning a change of mind and purpose. The meaning of the word, for Calvin, is appropriate to both derivations because repentance (a) involves "withdrawing from ourselves," (b) turning to God, (c) "laying aside the old," and (d) putting on "a new mind."[42]
In his classic word study, Treadwell Walden sought to promote the proper meaning of metanoia as "change of Mind, a change in the trend and action of the whole inner nature, intellectual, affectional and moral." over against its translation as repentance.[43] In the present day, other writers continue Walden's effort.
Edward J. Anton refers back to Walden's effort and makes a similar effort in his Repentance: A Cosmic Shift of Mind and Heart. Anton observes that in most dictionaries and in the minds of most Christians the primary meaning of "repent" is to look back on past behavior with sorrow, self-reproach, or contrition, sometimes with an amendment of life. But neither Jesus nor John the Baptist says to look back in sorrow. For St Paul, "metanoia is a transfiguration for your brain" that opens a new future.[44]
Charles Taylor defines metanoia as "to change one's mind of attitude" and builds his pastoral counseling method on the "metanoia model." In doing so, Taylor recalls that the center of Jesus' ministry was a call to metanoia.[45]
For Milton Crum, metanoia means "a change of perception with its behavioral fruit." Thus, metanoia constitutes the central thing that needs to happen in preaching.[46]
Peter Senge observes that what happens in a "learning organization" that experiences the "deeper meaning of 'learning'" is "metanoia" which means "a shift of mind." Therefore, concludes Senge, "to grasp the meaning of 'metanoia' is to grasp the deeper meaning of 'learning.'"[47]
In 2006, an ecumenical group of scholars published a study of repentance in the Bible and the Church. After "a thorough examination of Hellenistic Jewish writings," the study found that for Jews living at the time of Jesus, "repentance" meant "a fundamental change in thinking and living." For the New Testament, this change is a necessary ingredient in accomplishing God’s plan for salvation and community for everyone.[48]
Robertson lamented the fact that in his time there was no English word that signified the meaning of the Greek μετάνοια (metanoia).[49] Merriam-Webster has remedied this deficiency by transliterating the Greek μετάνοια into metanoia and borrowing it as an English word with a definition that matches the Greek: "a transformative change of heart; especially: a spiritual conversion," augmented by an explanation of metanoia’s Greek source: "from metanoiein to change one's mind, repent, from meta- + noein to think, from nous mind."[50]