Historically, philosophy encompassed all bodies of knowledge and a practitioner was known as a philosopher.[6]Natural philosophy, the origins of which trace back to Ancient Greece, encompasses astronomy, medicine, and physics.[7][8] In the transition to the modern era, various areas of investigation that were traditionally part of philosophy became separate academic disciplines such as psychology, sociology, linguistics, and economics.
The word "philosophy" comes from the ancient Greekφίλος, phílos: "love"; and σοφία, sophía: "wisdom".[9] Some sources claim the term was coined by Pythagoras (c. 570 – c. 495 BCE),[10][11] although this theory is disputed by others.[12][13][14] The word entered the English language by way of multiple sources, but primarily from the French philosophie, which is itself a borrowing from the Latin philosophia.[15]
Before the modern age, the term philosophy was used in a very wide sense, which encompassed the individual sciences, like physics or mathematics, as its sub-disciplines, but the contemporary usage is more narrow and brings one into the realm of academic philosophy.[16][17][18]
Natural philosophy (i.e., physics, from Greek: ta physika, lit. 'things having to do with physis [nature]') was the study of the constitution and processes of transformation in the physical world.[20]
Moral philosophy (i.e., ethics, from êthika, 'having to do with character, disposition, manners') was the study of goodness, right and wrong, justice and virtue.[21]
In Against the Logicians, the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus detailed the variety of ways in which the ancient Greek philosophers had divided philosophy, noting that this three-part division was agreed to by Plato, Aristotle, Xenocrates, and the Stoics.[22] The Academic Skeptic philosopher Cicero also followed this tripartite distinction.[23]
This division is not obsolete. In the 19th century, however, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize.[24] For this reason, our vocabulary has changed to reflect the fact that many parts of ancient philosophy are now autonomous sciences in their own right; for example:
Metaphysical philosophy has generated formal sciences such as logic, mathematics, and philosophy of science, while still including epistemology, ontology, and so forth.
The practice of philosophy is characterized by various general features: it is a form of rational inquiry, it aims to be systematic, and it tends to critically reflect on its own methods and presuppositions.[25][26][16] It requires thinking "as hard and as clearly...about some of the most interesting and enduring problems that human minds have ever encountered"; many of these we cannot avoid, but are unable to answer once and for all.[27]
For instance, according to the 18th-century philosopher Immanuel Kant, the task of philosophy is united by four questions: (1) What can I know?; (2) What should I do?; (3) What may I hope?; and (4) What is the human being?[28][29] His entire career, as he conceived it, was devoted to systematically addressing these four questions.[30]
Bertrand Russell offers this justification for undertaking the labor of philosophical thought:
The man who has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason.[31]
Aristotle, more generously, opens his Metaphysics by explaining the need for philosophy with the claim that "All human beings by nature stretch themselves out toward knowing".[32] In a further passage, he adds, it is "by way of wondering [that] people both now and at first begin to philosophize, wondering first about the strange things near at hand, then going forward little by little in this way and coming to impasses about greater things".[33]
On its way into modern English from c.1175 Old French and Anglo-Norman, "philosophy" has acquired, and to some extent still retains, the meanings of "advanced study of the speculative subjects (logic, ethics, physics, and metaphysics)", "deep wisdom consisting of love of truth and virtuous living", "profound learning as transmitted by the ancient writers", and "the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, and the basic limits of human understanding".[34]
Attempts to define philosophy in more precise and specific terms are typically controversial.[26][16] Some approaches argue that there is a set of essential features shared by all parts of philosophy, while others see only weaker family resemblances or contend that it is merely an empty blanket term.[35][36][37] Often, they are only accepted by theorists belonging to a certain philosophical movement and are revisionistic in that many presumed parts of philosophy would not deserve the title "philosophy" if they were true.[38][35]
Some definitions characterize philosophy in relation to its method, like pure reasoning. Others focus more on its topic, for example, as the study of the biggest patterns of the world as a whole or as the attempt to answer the big questions.[35][39][40] Both approaches have the problem that they are usually either too wide, by including non-philosophical disciplines, or too narrow, by excluding some philosophical sub-disciplines.[35]
Many definitions of philosophy emphasize its intimate relation to science.[16] In this sense, philosophy is sometimes understood as a proper science in its own right. According to some naturalistic philosophers, like Willard Van Orman Quine, philosophy is an empirical yet very abstract science that is concerned with very wide-ranging empirical patterns instead of particular observations.[35][41] Science-based definitions usually face the problem of explaining why philosophy in its long history has not made the type of progress as seen in other sciences.[35][42][43] This problem is avoided by seeing philosophy as an immature or provisional science whose subdisciplines cease to be philosophy once they have fully developed.[16][36][44] In this sense, philosophy is the midwife of the sciences.[16]
Other definitions focus more on the contrast between science and philosophy. A common theme among many such conceptions is that philosophy is concerned with meaning, understanding, or the clarification of language.[35][39] According to one view, philosophy is conceptual analysis, which involves finding the necessary and sufficient conditions for the application of concepts.[35][40][45]
Another presents philosophy as a linguistic therapy. According to Ludwig Wittgenstein, for example, philosophy aims at dispelling misunderstandings to which humans are susceptible due to the confusing structure of natural language.[16][38][46]
Many other conceptions of philosophy do not clearly fall into any of the aforementioned categories. An early approach found in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, that philosophy is the spiritual practice of developing one's rational capacities, has been rehabilitated by philosophers such as Pierre Hadot and Michel Foucault.[48][49] This practice is an expression of the philosopher's love of wisdom and has the aim of improving one's well-being by leading a reflective life.[50] A closely related approach identifies the development and articulation of worldviews as the principal task of philosophy, i.e., to express how things on the grand scale hang together and which practical stance we should take towards them.[25][35][51] Another definition characterizes philosophy as thinking about thinking in order to emphasize its reflective nature.[35][40]
The history of philosophy studies the development of philosophical thought. It aims to provide a systematic and chronological exposition of philosophical concepts and doctrines.[52][53][54] Some theorists see it as a part of intellectual history, but it also investigates questions not covered by intellectual history such as whether the theories of past philosophers are true and philosophically relevant today.[55] The history of philosophy is primarily concerned with theories based on rational inquiry and argumentation. However, some historians understand it in a looser sense that includes myths, religious teachings, and proverbial lore.[56] The main traditions in the history of philosophy include Western, Arabic-Persian, Indian, and Chinese philosophy, the latter two of which are often referred to under the broader heading of Eastern philosophy. Other influential philosophical traditions are Japanese philosophy, Latin American philosophy, and African philosophy.[57]
The Renaissance period started in the 14th century and saw a renewed interest in various schools of Ancient philosophy, in particular Platonism. The idea of humanism also emerged in this period.[71] The following modern period started in the 17th century. One of its central concerns was how philosophical and scientific knowledge are created. Specific importance was given to the role of reason and sensory experience.[72][73] Many of these innovations were used in the Enlightenment movement to challenge traditional authorities.[74][75] Various attempts to develop all-inclusive systems of philosophy were made in the later part of the modern period, for example, by German idealism.[76] Influential developments in 20th-century philosophy were the emergence and application of formal logic and the focus on the role of language as well as philosophical movements like phenomenology and pragmatism.[77][78]
Arabic-Persian philosophy is the philosophical tradition of Arabic- and Persian-speaking regions.[79][80] It started in the early 9th century CE and had its peak period during the Islamic Golden Age. It was strongly influenced by Ancient Greek philosophers and employed their ideas to elaborate and interpret the teachings of the Quran.[81]
An Iranian portrait of Avicenna on a Silver Vase. He was one of the most influential philosophers of the Islamic Golden Age.
Al-Kindi is usually regarded as the first philosopher of this tradition. He translated and interpreted many works of Aristotle and Neoplatonists in his attempt to show that there is a harmony between reason and faith.[82]Avicenna also followed this goal and developed a comprehensive philosophical system to provide a rational understanding of reality encompassing science, religion, and mysticism.[83][84]Al-Ghazali was a strong critic of the idea that reason can arrive at a true understanding of reality and God. He formulated a detailed critique of philosophy and tried to assign philosophy a more limited place beside the teachings of the Quran and mystical insight.[85] Following Al-Ghazali and the end of the Islamic Golden Age, the influence of philosophical inquiry waned.[86][87]Mulla Sadra is often regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of the subsequent period.[88][89]
Indian philosophy covers philosophical thought that originated on the Indian subcontinent.[90][91] One of its distinguishing features is its integrated exploration of the nature of reality, the ways of arriving at knowledge, and the spiritual question of how to reach enlightenment.[92][93] It started around 900 BCE when the religious scriptures known as the Vedas were written. They contemplate issues concerning the relation between the self and ultimate reality as well as the question of how souls are reborn based on their past actions.[94] This period also saw the emergence of non-Vedic teachings, like Buddhism and Jainism.[95][96]
The subsequent classical period started roughly 200 BCE and was characterized by the emergence of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism. They are known as the astikas and are Nyāyá, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedanta.[97][98][99] The school of Advaita Vedanta developed later in this period. It claimed that everything is one and that the impression of a universe consisting of many distinct entities is an illusion.[100][101][102] The modern period began roughly 1800 CE and was shaped by the encounter with Western thought.[103][104] Various philosophers tried to formulate comprehensive systems to harmonize diverse philosophical and religious teachings. For example, Swami Vivekananda used the teachings of Advaita Vedanta to argue that all the different religions are valid paths toward the one divine.[105]
Confucius (551–479 BCE) was one of the earliest and most influential Chinese philophers
Chinese philosophy encompasses the philosophical and intellectual heritage of China. Compared to the other main traditions, it placed less emphasis on questions of ultimate reality. It was more interested in practical questions associated with right social conduct and government.[106] It originated in the 6th century BCE when the schools of Confucianism and Daoism emerged. Confucian thought focused on different forms of moral virtues and explored how they lead to harmony in society.[107] Daoism broadened this focus to also include questions about the relation between humans and nature.[108] The introduction of Buddhism to China in the following period resulted in the development of new forms of Buddhism.[109]
The modern period in Chinese philosophy began in the early 20th century and was shaped by the influence of and reactions to Western philosophy. Of particular importance were the ideas of Karl Marx on class struggle, socialism, and communism. They led to the development of Chinese Marxism and resulted in a significant transformation of the political landscape when Mao Zedong worked on their practical implementation in the form of a communist revolution.[110]
Philosophical questions can be grouped into various branches. These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in the same questions.
These divisions are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. For example, political philosophy, ethics, and aesthetics are sometimes linked under the general heading of value theory as they involve a normative or evaluative aspect.[111] Furthermore, philosophical inquiry sometimes overlaps with other disciplines in the natural or social sciences, religion, or mathematics.[112]
Aesthetics is the "critical reflection on art, culture, and nature".[113][114] It addresses the nature of art, beauty, and taste; enjoyment, emotional values, perception; and the creation and appreciation of beauty.[115] It is more precisely defined as the study of sensory or sensory-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste.[116] Its major divisions are art theory, literary theory, film theory and music theory. An example from art theory is to discern the set of principles underlying the work of a particular artist or artistic movement such as the Cubist aesthetic.[117]
"The utilitarian doctrine is, that happiness is desirable, and the only thing desirable, as an end; all other things being only desirable as means to that end." — John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism (1863)[118]
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, studies what constitutes good and bad conduct, right and wrongvalues, and good and evil. Its primary investigations include exploring how to live a good life and identifying standards of morality. It also includes investigating whether there is a best way to live or a universal moral standard, and if so, how we come to learn about it. The main branches of ethics are normative ethics, meta-ethics, and applied ethics.[119]
The three main views in contemporary philosophical ethics about what constitute moral actions are:[119]
Consequentialism, which judges actions based on their consequences.[120] One such view is utilitarianism, which judges actions based on the net happiness (or pleasure) and/or lack of suffering (or pain) that they produce.
Deontology, which judges actions based on whether they are in accordance with one's moral duty.[120] In the standard form defended by Immanuel Kant, deontology is concerned with whether a choice respects the moral agency of other people, regardless of its consequences.[120]
Virtue ethics, which judges actions based on the moral character of the agent who performs them and whether they conform to what an ideally virtuous agent would do.[120]
One central debate in contemporary epistemology is about the conditions required for a belief to constitute knowledge, which might include truth and justification. This debate was largely the result of attempts to solve the Gettier problem, according to which well justified reasons for a belief turn out to be false.[122] Another common subject of contemporary debates is the regress problem, which occurs when trying to offer proof or justification for any belief, statement, or proposition. The problem is that whatever the source of justification may be, that source must either be without justification (in which case it must be treated as an arbitrary foundation for belief), or it must have some further justification (in which case justification must either be the result of circular reasoning, as in coherentism, or the result of an infinite regress, as in infinitism).[122]
Metaphysics deals with the topic of identity. Essence is the set of attributes that make an object what it fundamentally is and without which it loses its identity, while accident is a property that the object has, without which the object can still retain its identity. Particulars are objects that are said to exist in space and time, as opposed to abstract objects, such as numbers, and universals, which are properties held by multiple particulars, such as redness or a gender. The type of existence, if any, of universals and abstract objects is an issue of debate.
The philosophy of science explores the foundations, methods, history, implications and purpose of science. Many of its subdivisions correspond to specific branches of science. For example, philosophy of biology deals specifically with the metaphysical, epistemological and ethical issues in the biomedical and life sciences.
Political philosophy is the study of government and the relationship of individuals (or families and clans) to communities including the state. It includes questions about justice, law, property and the rights and obligations of the citizen.
Philosophy of religion deals with questions that involve religion and religious ideas from a philosophically neutral perspective (as opposed to theology which begins from religious convictions).[126] Traditionally, religious questions were not seen as a separate field from philosophy proper, and the idea of a separate field only arose in the 19th century.[ii]
Methods of philosophy are ways of conducting philosophical inquiry. They include techniques for arriving at philosophical knowledge and justifying philosophical claims as well as principles used for choosing between competing theories.[127][128][129]
A great variety of methods has been employed throughout the history of philosophy. Many of them differ significantly from the methods used in the natural sciences in that they do not use experimental data obtained through measuring equipment.[130][131][132]
The choice of one's method usually has important implications both for how philosophical theories are constructed and for the arguments cited for or against them.[128][133][134] This choice is often guided by epistemological considerations about what constitutes philosophical evidence, how much support it offers, and how to acquire it.[130][128][135]
Various disagreements on the level of philosophical theories have their source in methodological disagreements and the discovery of new methods has often had important consequences both for how philosophers conduct their research and for what claims they defend.[136][129][128] Some philosophers engage in most of their theorizing using one particular method while others employ a wider range of methods based on which one fits the specific problem investigated best.[131][137]
Conceptual analysis is a well-known method in analytic philosophy. It aims to clarify the meaning of concepts by analyzing them into their fundamental constituents.[138][45][25] Another method often employed in analytic philosophy is based on common sense. It starts with commonly accepted beliefs and tries to draw interesting conclusions from them, which it often employs in a negative sense to criticize philosophical theories that are too far removed from how the average person sees the issue.[132][139][140] It is very similar to how ordinary language philosophy tackles philosophical questions by investigating how ordinary language is used.[129][141][142]
Various methods in philosophy give particular importance to intuitions, i.e., non-inferential impressions about the correctness of specific claims or general principles.[136][143] For example, they play an important role in thought experiments, which employ counterfactual thinking to evaluate the possible consequences of an imagined situation. These anticipated consequences can then be used to confirm or refute philosophical theories.[144][145][138] The method of reflective equilibrium also employs intuitions. It seeks to form a coherent position on a certain issue by examining all the relevant beliefs and intuitions, some of which often have to be deemphasized or reformulated in order to arrive at a coherent perspective.[136][146][147]
Pragmatists stress the significance of concrete practical consequences for assessing whether a philosophical theory is true or false.[148][149]
Phenomenologists seek knowledge about the realm of appearances. They do so by suspending their judgments about the external world in order to focus on how things appear independent of their underlying reality, a technique known as epoché.[150][129]
Some of those who study philosophy become professional philosophers, typically by working as professors who teach, research and write in academic institutions.[153] However, most students of academic philosophy contribute to law, journalism, religion, sciences, politics, business, or various arts.[154][155] For example, public figures who have degrees in philosophy include comediansSteve Martin and Ricky Gervais, filmmaker Terrence Malick, Pope John Paul II, Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger, technology entrepreneur Peter Thiel, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Stephen Breyer, Jeopardy! host Alex Trebek, and US vice presidential candidate Carly Fiorina.[156][157]Curtis White has argued that philosophical tools are essential to humanities, sciences and social sciences.[158]
Recent efforts to avail the general public to the work and relevance of philosophers include the million-dollar Berggruen Prize, first awarded to Charles Taylor in 2016.[159] Some philosophers argue that this professionalization has negatively affected the discipline.[160]
In the early 1800s, some colleges and universities in the UK and the US began admitting women, producing more female academics. Nevertheless, U.S. Department of Education reports from the 1990s indicate that few women ended up in philosophy and that philosophy is one of the least gender-proportionate fields in the humanities, with women making up somewhere between 17% and 30% of philosophy faculty according to some studies.[164]
^Quinton, Anthony. The Ethics of Philosophical Practice. p. 666. Philosophy is rationally critical thinking, of a more or less systematic kind about the general nature of the world (metaphysics or theory of existence), the justification of belief (epistemology or theory of knowledge), and the conduct of life (ethics or theory of value). Each of the three elements in this list has a non-philosophical counterpart, from which it is distinguished by its explicitly rational and critical way of proceeding and by its systematic nature. Everyone has some general conception of the nature of the world in which they live and of their place in it. Metaphysics replaces the unargued assumptions embodied in such a conception with a rational and organized body of beliefs about the world as a whole. Everyone has occasion to doubt and question beliefs, their own or those of others, with more or less success and without any theory of what they are doing. Epistemology seeks by argument to make explicit the rules of correct belief formation. Everyone governs their conduct by directing it to desired or valued ends. Ethics, or moral philosophy, in its most inclusive sense, seeks to articulate, in rationally systematic form, the rules or principles involved. In Honderich 1995.
^Wainwright, William J. (2005). "Introduction". In Wainwright, W. J. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Religion. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 3–11. ISBN978-0-19-803158-1. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. p. 3: The expression 'philosophy of religion' did not come into general use until the nineteenth century, when it was employed to refer to the articulation and criticism of humanity's religious consciousness and its cultural expressions in thought, language, feeling, and practice.
Citations
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^Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1877). Tusculan Disputations. New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 166. Archived from the original on 18 May 2021. Retrieved 12 June 2021. From whence all who occupied themselves in the contemplation of nature were both considered and called wise men; and that name of theirs continued to the age of Pythagoras, who is reported to have gone to Phlius, as we find it stated by Heraclides Ponticus, a very learned man, and a pupil of Plato, and to have discoursed very learnedly and copiously on certain subjects with Leon, prince of the Phliasii; and when Leon, admiring his ingenuity and eloquence, asked him what art he particularly professed, his answer was, that he was acquainted with no art, but that he was a philosopher. Leon, surprised at the novelty of the name, inquired what he meant by the name of philosopher, and in what philosophers differed from other men; on which Pythagoras replied, "That the life of man seemed to him to resemble those games which were celebrated with the greatest possible variety of sports and the general concourse of all Greece. For as in those games there were some persons whose object was glory and the honor of a crown, to be attained by the performance of bodily exercises, so others were led thither by the gain of buying and selling, and mere views of profit; but there was likewise one class of persons, and they were by far the best, whose aim was neither applause nor profit, but who came merely as spectators through curiosity, to observe what was done, and to see in what manner things were carried on there. And thus, said he, we come from another life and nature unto this one, just as men come out of some other city, to some much frequented mart; some being slaves to glory, others to money; and there are some few who, taking no account of anything else, earnestly look into the nature of things; and these men call themselves studious of wisdom, that is, philosophers: and as there it is the most reputable occupation of all to be a looker-on without making any acquisition, so in life, the contemplating things, and acquainting one's self with them, greatly exceeds every other pursuit of life."
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