Regnal lists of Ethiopia are recorded lists of monarchs who are claimed by tradition to have ruled Ethiopia. These lists are often recorded on manuscripts or orally by monasteries and have been passed down over the centuries.
Many surviving physical regnal lists, as well as recorded oral lists, chronicle the line of kings beginning with Menelik I to the Solomonic dynasty. In Ethiopian tradition, Menelik is believed to be the son of queen Makeda (the BiblicalQueen of Sheba) and king Solomon. The rulers that followed Menelik were the kings of Axum, the Zagwe dynasty and the Solomonic dynasty. Some monarchs who ruled before Menelik are recorded in different Ethiopian traditions. These regnal lists were used to prove the longevity of the Ethiopian monarchy and to provide legitimacy for the Solomonic dynasty until its fall from power in 1974.
Traditions
Menelik I
Ethiopian traditions record a range of different monarchs from earlier times whose existence has not been verified by modern-day archeology. Their stories and legends may have elements of truth but it is unclear to what extent this is the case. Numerous king lists have been recorded either on manuscripts or via oral tradition. However, surviving information on the kings prior to the reign of emperor Yekuno Amlak (1270–1285) is often scattered, incomplete or contradictory.[1][2] The king lists that do refer to pre-1270 Ethiopia rarely match completely with one another.[3] This variation is likely because the lists were compiled over a long time period across several different monasteries.[4] It is also possible that the variations in succession order could be due to tampering with the lists after the 13th century that resulted from "dynastic quarrels" and "ideological re-readings" of the Axumite regnal lists.[5]
Notable legendary Ethiopian monarchs include:
Arwe – Mythical serpent king who ruled for 400 years before being killed by Angabo.
Angabo – A king of non-royal birth who killed the evil serpent Arwe, and was the father or ancestor of Makeda, the Queen of Sheba.
Ethiopis – A king who was said to have inspired the name of the country of Ethiopia.
Makeda – The biblical queen of Sheba who, according to Ethiopian tradition, is believed to be the mother of Menelik I.
Menelik I – Son of the queen of Sheba and king Solomon of Israel and founder of the Solomonic dynasty in the 10th century BC. Much information on this king comes from the 14th century text Kebra Nagast, however he remains historically unverified. In reality, the Solomonic dynasty began in 1270 AD with the reign of Yekuno Amlak.
Abreha and Atsbeha – Two brothers who supposedly brought Christianity to Ethiopia, however their existence is doubted by some historians. Some scholars believe that the story of Abreha and Atsbeha may in fact be based on the Axumite kings Ezana and Saizana.[6]
Gudit – Legendary queen who supposedly laid waste to the Kingdom of Axum. Her deeds are recorded in oral tradition, but the various stories about her occasionally have differing or conflicting details.
Historian Manfred Kropp noted that numerous regnal lists exist that date back to the 13th century and these are reliable documents. However, for the period before this there are only legendary memories of the Axumite rulers.[2] Regnal lists were created to provide a connection between the Solomonic dynasty and the legendary Axumite kings while skipping the Zagwe dynasty. Such lists were written for the purpose of proving the legitimacy of the ruling Solomonic emperors and had information drawn from chronicles held in monasteries.[7] Kropp believed that Ethiopian regnal lists were intended to fill in the gaps between major events, such as the meeting of Makeda and Solomon, the arrival of Frumentius and the beginning of the Zagwe dynasty. The great variation in names and order between regnal lists was likely because this process took place across several different monasteries and were also passed on orally.[4]
E. A. Wallis Budge commented that any written information on the period of Ethiopian history before the 13th century was "incomplete" and "untrustworthy". However, he felt that this was because any regnal lists or chronological works held in Axum were likely burned or destroyed before Yekuno Amlak ascended the throne in 1270.[1] Budge noted that numerous regnal lists were known to exist in which the number and order of kings were rarely the same. He felt that it was clear that the chronographers of Abyssinia from the 13th and 14th centuries "did not know how many kings had reigned over [their country] from the time of Makeda [...] or the exact order of succession". Budge theorized that while the regnal lists showed evidence that they were based on legend and tradition, some parts of the list suggested that the scribes did indeed "[have] access to chronological and historical documents of some kind", including Coptic and Arabic texts which were possibly brought over by monks fleeing Egypt and Nubia during the time of the Arab conquests. Some lists began with Adam or David.[3]
Two European missionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries, Pedro Páez and Manuel de Almeida, visited Ethiopia and personally saw two different regnal lists on which they based their respective writings on the history of Ethiopia.[8] The manuscripts likely dated to before 1620.[8] Both Páez and de Almeida stated that the Ethiopian emperor lent them books from the church of Axum containing the regnal lists.[8] European travellers James Bruce, Henry Salt and Carlo Conti Rossini all published different regnal lists in Europe between the late 18th and early 20th centuries. The lists were written based on information gathered from local Ethiopian scribes. These regnal lists contain a list of names from Menelik I to Dil Na'od, but both the names and order of kings only occasionally overlap between the different lists, and there are numerous kings who appear on one list but are omitted from another. There are also at least two manuscripts held in the British Museum that contain differing regnal lists covering the same lineage of monarchs.[9] Budge theorised that the existence of multiple regnal lists were to due to rival claimants to the throne.[10]
Studies and comparisons of the regnal lists
August Dillmann wrote an article comparing Ethiopian regnal lists in 1853.[11] Dillman compared three lists and simply named them as A, B and C. Dillmann believed that list A was the longest because it included all rulers, regents, co-regents, pretenders and even heads of individual parts of the empire, while lists B and C only had the most important names.[12]
Carlo Conti Rossini attempted to co-ordinate and compare the large number of different Ethiopian regnal lists, bringing together 86 different lists from libraries in Ethiopia and Italian Eritrea.[13] The lists were divided into eight groups based on similarities and number of kings, and they were categorized by the letters A to H.[13]
Contained with some manuscripts of the Kebra Nagast.
Some versions omit Dil Na'od and other kings after Armah, and insert queen Esato/Gudit.
–
14
33
Pedro Páez's List 3 (44 names).[15] This list begins with Senfa Asgued and ends with Armah II, but includes Dil Na'od and lists Gudit and Esato as two separate rulers. It has 12 names before Abreha and Atsbeha and 32 names from Abreha and Atseha to Armah II.
August Dillmann's List C.[16] 14 names from Bazen to Agdor, 32 rulers/33 names from Abreha and Atsbeha to Terdae Gabaz (Esato and Gudit are considered to be the same person on this list, though both names are mentioned).
Found in the Debre Libanos version of Gadla Takla Haymanot and in the Short Chronicles.
Probably conceived at Debre Libanos.
25
11
33
René Basset's list (69 names).[17] 26 names from Ebna Hakim (Menelik I) to Bazen, 10 names from Senfa Ared I to Senfa Ared II and 33 names from Abreha and Atsbeha to Dil Na'od.
August Dillmann's List B (69 names).[18] 26 names from Ibna-Hakim (Menelik I) to Bazen, 10 names from Tsenfa Ared to Saifa Ared, 33 names from Abreha and Atsbeha to Dil Na'od.
Attested by 16 witnesses including Manuel de Almeida and Mariano Vittori [de].
Includes 6 "pre-Solomonic" kings (i.e. pre-Menelik I).
Includes years of reign for each king.
Several names have the "Ella" prefix.
Probably compiled by someone who knew list A, a list of pre-Christian kings and possibly list D, but certainly not list B.
26
32
33
Pedro Páez's List 2 (86 names).[19] This list does not mention Arwe or the four kings who ruled before Makeda as part of the Angabo dynasty. 21 names from Azeb (Makeda) to Bazen I, 31 names from Sartu to Ahywa and 34 names from Abreha and Atsbeha to Bazen II.
An alternate version found with one copy of Kebra Negast contains 27 names, with the addition of years of reign and intermingling of emperors from the 17th and 18th centuries.
Both versions claim to cover a period of 1,200 years.
Probably related to list B.
25
–
–
Monarchs who reigned before Menelik I
The reign of Menelik I is traditionally dated to the 10th century BC, due to being the son of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba (Makeda), as stated in the Kebra Nagast. Multiple lists exist that chronicle Menelik's lineage through both his mother and father. While Solomon's descent is recorded in the Bible, traditions around Makeda's ancestry are more varied. She is usually assumed to be a descendant of Angabo, who saved Ethiopia from a mythical serpent king named Arwe. Another tradition attempts to link Ethiopia with an even more remote past by claiming the monarchy descended from Ham.
Arwe Dynasty
According to Ethiopian tradition, a evil serpent named Arwe ruled Ethiopia before he was defeated by Angabo, ancestor of Menelik I. One tradition recorded by Henry Salt stated that Arwe ruled for 400 years.[22] However, a different tradition recorded by E. A. Wallis Budge instead claimed that "20 or 30 kings" descended from Arwe ruled in Tigray for 400 years.[23]
Angabo Dynasty
After killing Arwe, Angabo became the new king of Ethiopia. Some traditions relate that he reigned for 200 years and was followed by three further kings before Makeda ascended the throne.[24]
All rulers of this dynasty were included on the 1922 regnal list as part of the "Agdazyan" or "Ag'azyan" dynasty. In most cases their reign lengths were shortened to be more realistic.
Reigned for 50 years.[23][22] Went to Jerusalem in the fourth year of her reign and returned to Ethiopia in her 25th regnal year.[22] According to the second list quoted by Pedro Páez, this queen began her reign in Axum in the thirty-seventh year of Saul's reign.[25] A list quoted by August Dillman stated that Makeda travelled in the thirty-sixth year of Saul's reign and went to Jerusalem in the fourth year of Solomon's reign.[26] After returning to Ethiopia, she reigned for twenty-five years.[26]
Biblical List from Adam to Solomon
This regnal list chronicles kings who ruled before Menelik I, but relies on Biblical chronology, particularly from the Book of Genesis. This list essentially serves as a document of the lineage of Menelik through his father Solomon.
The following list was included in E. A. Wallis Budge's book A History of Ethiopia (Volume I) and was quoted from two manuscripts; One held in the British Museum and another held in the Bibliothèque nationale de France, which was published in René Basset's 1882 book Études sur l'histoire d'Éthiopie.[27][28] The names of these kings also appear in the 14th-century text Kebra Nagast.[29] Budge believed this list had "no historical value" and was only intended to fill the gap from Adam to Solomon.[27]
The last king, 'Ebna Hakim, does not appear in the Bible and is meant to be Menelik I, the son of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.[23] The name Ebna Hakim translates to "Son of the Wise Man" (i.e. Solomon) in Arabic.[23]
The Kebra Nagast lists an additional king named 'Orni between Hezron and Aram, who was the son of Hezron and father of Aram.[30] Budge believed this king to be Oren, son of Jerahmeel.[30]
Biblical Hamitic List
Another Ethiopian tradition claims that the Ethiopian monarchy was descended from Ham, son of the Biblical prophet Noah. While Ham is not included in the Biblical regnal list mentioned above, a claimed genealogy from Ham to the founders of Axum does exist.[31] According to this tradition, Axum was founded within a century after the Great Flood.[32] This genealogy chronicles kings descending from Ham who represent Ethiopia and Axum. E. A. Wallis Budge called this dynasty the "Dynasty of Kush" and referred to the Angabo dynasty as the "Native African dynasty".[33]
Enno Littmann recorded a tradition from an Ethiopian priest named Gabra Wahad, who stated the following:
((blockquote|Ham begot Kush, Kush begot Aethiopis, after whom the country is called Aethiopia to this day. Aethiopis was buried in Aksum, and his grave is known there to this day. It was said that a fire used to burn in it, and that if any donkey's excrement, or any bit of stuff fell into it, it was consumed. Aethiopis begot 'Aksumawi, 'Aksumawi begot Malayka 'Aksum, and begot also Sum, Nafas, Bagi'o, Kuduki, 'Akhoro, Fasheba. These six sons of 'Aksumawi became the fathers of Aksum. When they wished to divide their land, there came a man called May Bih, and as people say divided their land as an agent. Each of the six gave him two acres of land and he settled down with them.[34]
The six sons of Malayka Aksum were the "fathers" of Aksum but were not kings of Ethiopia.[35] Budge believed that they may have "[represented] the dynasty of the serpent which was destroyed by Angabo".[35]
–
Nafaz
–
Bagi'o
–
Kuduki
–
Akhoro
–
Farheba
Monarchs from Menelik I to Bazen
Beginning with Menelik I, Ethiopian regnal lists begin to diverge on the exact order of succession. Only a few rulers' names are consistently recorded across all lists. This section looks at rulers who are named as reigning between Menelik I and Bazen, who began his reign eight years before the birth of Jesus. Despite tradition claiming that Menelik ruled in the 10th century BC, the reign lengths provided on most lists do not allow for a sufficient number of monarchs to have reigned over a span of ten centuries.
Spanish Missionary Pedro Páez believed that the reason for the differences in names on various lists was because the Ethiopian emperors used different names prior to their accession to the throne, and some lists used their regnal names while others listed their birth names.[36] This was supposedly done in imitation of Menelik I, who was named David when he was crowned.[37] E. A. Wallis Budge theorised that the existence of multiple king lists suggest that these represent rival claimants to the throne.[10]
Lists recorded by Páez, James Bruce, August Dillmann and Carlo Conti Rossini, as well as the 1922 regnal list, are all in agreement that Christ was born in the eighth year of Bazen's reign, a statement that is also clear on one of the British Museum manuscripts.[38] If one was to calculate backwards from the Bazen's reign, then Henry Salt's list would date Menelik I to 128–99 B.C., over 9 centuries after the traditional 10th century BC dating of Menelik's reign. If the same was done for Bruce's list, then Menelik's reign would be pushed back nearly a century earlier but would still fall far short of the 10th century BC dating. The 1922 regnal list attempts to correct this by combining various monarchs into a longer list that allows Menelik to be firmly dated to the 10th century BC.
Variation 1
This table contains names from the following recorded lists:
The second regnal list recorded by Spanish missionary Pedro Páez in 1620.[25] He believed this list contained the regnal names for the kings.[25]
A list recorded by Scottish traveller James Bruce in his book Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile (1790).[39] He had gathered information for his regnal list from local scribes, though did not believe they were trustworthy or that his regnal list was complete.[40]
The first regnal list recorded by English Egyptologist Henry Salt in his book A Voyage to Abyssinia (1814).[41]
August Dillmann's List A (1853), which he compiled from multiple sources.[42] On this list, Menelik is preceded by Arwe and the dynasty of Angabo.
The first of two manuscripts held in the British Museum published in E. A. Wallis Budge's A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia Volume I (1928).[9] This manuscript was filed under Oriental No. 821, fol. 28b.
Dillmann noted some lists give this king 16 years of rule.[43]
B.M. Manuscript 1 (21)
Za B'esī Bāzēn
16 years
Variation 2
This version of the line of succession does not contain reign lengths for the majority of monarchs.
This table contains names from the following recorded lists:
The first regnal list recorded by Pedro Páez in 1620.[37] He believed this list contained the birth names of the kings.
The second regnal list recorded by English Egyptologist Henry Salt in his book A Voyage to Abyssinia (1814), which he considered to be a "corrupt" list.[41]
August Dillmann's List B (1853).[42] This list claims that each king was the father of the next.
A list recorded by French Orientalist René Basset in his book Études sur l'histoire d'Éthiopie (1882).[46] This list claimed that each king was the son of the previous king.
One regnal list included in a book titled History of the Kings of Dabra Yahanes (1903), edited by Italian orientalist Carlo Conti Rossini.[47]
The second of two manuscripts held in the British Museum published in E. A. Wallis Budge's A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia Volume I (1928).[48] This manuscript was filed under Oriental No. 821, fol. 36a. Budge regarded this manuscript to be the most authoritative.[10]
Monarchs who reigned between Bazen and Abreha and Atsbeha
These lists name the monarchs who ruled after Bazen up to Abreha and Atsbeha, brothers who are credited in Ethiopian tradition with being the first rulers to convert to Christianity. Tradition recorded that Bazen's reign began in 8 BC and Ethiopia converted to Christianity in the 4th century. However, the reign lengths on some king lists push Abeha and Atsbeha's reign into the 5th century instead.
Variation 1
This table compares the following regnal lists:
The second regnal list recorded by Pedro Páez in 1620, which he believed listed regnal names.[50]
One regnal list recorded by English Egyptologist Henry Salt in his book A Voyage to Abyssinia (1814).[51]
August Dillmann's List A (1853), which was compiled from multiple sources.[52]
The first of two manuscripts from the British Museum published by E. A. Wallis Budge in 1928. This manuscript was filed under Oriental No. 821, fol. 28b.[53]
A noticeable problem with these lists is that over 400 years pass between the end of Bazen's reign and the beginning of Abreha and Atsbeha's reign. This pushes their joint reign to the early 5th century, a whole century after the traditional early 4th century date for the Christianisation of Ethiopia.
Because of this, Salt deliberately altered the placement of Abreha and Atsbeha so that the thirteenth year of their joint reign would fall correctly on the date when Christianity was introduced to Ethiopia instead of contradicting this tradition. His suggested alteration placed Abreha and Atsbeha after king El Semera in his list.
Henry Salt noted that one chronicle explicitly stated that 330 years had passed between the birth of Christ and the thirteenth year of Abreha's reign, when Christianity was introduced.[41] This is the same period of time which is quoted in other Ethiopian chronicles.[41] However the same chronicle makes a "very striking error" by placing Abreha after El Ahiawya and thus suggesting that his thirteenth year of rule took place 465 years after the birth of Christ.[54] As a result, Salt's personal king list alters the order slightly by placing Abreha and Atsbeha much further up the king list (the table below however retains the order of his original source).[54] Salt believed that the five rulers of his list from El Ahiawya to Seladoba "should [probably] be also removed" altogether, which is why E. A. Wallis Budge did not name them when quoting Salt's king list.[54][55] Salt additionally believed that there should only be one king named Ameda, though his list names two kings of this name.[54]
Salt theorised that the change of prefix from "Za" to "El" after the reign of Za Elasguaga reflected a change of dynasty.[41] He believed that this theory could be confirmed by the short reigns of Za Baesi Tsawesa, Za Wakena and Za Hadus, who all reigned for a combined total of 1 year, 4 months and 2 days after the first "El" king, El Herka.[41] He believed that the "Za" kings were the "shepherd kings" or "original Ethiopians" before being replaced by a new "race" of kings.[41] Salt suggested that this change may have been caused by colony of Syrians who were placed by Alexander the Great near the mouth of the Red Sea according to an account written by Philostorgius.[41]
An unpublished history of the kings of Axum states that a queen named "Ahiyewa" was the mother of Abreha and Atsbeha and she ruled for three years during the minority of her sons.[56] This confirms that the ruler named "Ahywa" who preceded Abreha and Atsbeha in this line of succession was a queen who ruled as regent during their minority. If Abreha and Atsbeha can be identified with the historical Ezana and Saizana, as Henry Salt did in his list,[51] then this suggests that "Ahywa" is another name for Sofya, wife of Ousanas. A book titled Gedle Abreha and Asbeha from the Church of Abreha wa-Atsbeha confirms that "Sofya" was one of the names for the mother of Abreha and Atsbeha.[56] The first British Museum manuscript published by Budge however stated that "'Eguālā 'Anbasā" was the name of their mother despite also listing "Ahywa" as their predecessor.[53]
No.
Common Name
Reign Length Span
List and Position
Name on List
Reign Length
Notes
1
Sartu
26–27 years
Páez 2 (1)
Certû
27 years
Salt (1)
Za–Senatu
26 years
Dillmann A (1)
Sarṭú
27 years
Dillmann noted at least one list gives 26 years of rule for this ruler.[52]
Known as "Tzawira" on at least one list.[52] At least one list gives 6 months of rule for this king, and at least one other list gives 1 month.[52]
B.M. Manuscript 1 (18)
Za Be'sī Ṣāwēzā
1 year
19
Wakana
1 day–1 month
Páez 2 (19)
Oecanâ
2 days
Salt (19)
Za Wakena
2 days
Dillmann A (19)
Wạkậnâ
1 day
Known as "Wakena" on at least one list.[52] Dillmann noted that at least one list gave 2 days of reign for this monarch, and at least one other list gave one month.[52]
B.M. Manuscript 1 (19)
Za Waknā
2 days
20
Hadus
1–4 months
Páez 2 (20)
Hadaûz
4 months
Salt (20)
Za Hadus
4 months
Dillmann A (20)
Haḍaús
4 months
Known as "Hadas" and "Hades" on at least one list each.[52] Dillmann noted that at least one list gave a reign of 1 month for this monarch.[52]
B.M. Manuscript 1 (20)
Za Ḥadāwesā
2 months
21
Sagal
2–3 years
Páez 2 (21)
Zaguêl
3 years
Salt (21)
El Segel
2 years
Dillmann A (21)
Ela–Sagal
3 years
Known as "Asgel" on at least one list.[52] Dillmann noted that at least one list gave 2 years of rule for this monarch.[52]
E. A. Wallis Budge theorised that this king could be equated with Sembrouthes,[58] although this king ruled for at least 24 years according to an inscription found at Dekemhare.
25
Aiba
16–17 years
Páez 2 (25)
Aibâ
16 years
Salt (25)
El Aiba
16 years
Dillmann A (25)
Ela–Aibâ
16 years
Known as "Atiba" on at least one list.[52] Dillmann noted that at least one list gave 17 years of rule for this monarch.[52]
B.M. Manuscript 1 (25)
Za Ela [...]
16 years
26
Eskandi
36–37 years
Páez 2 (26)
Escandi
37 years
Salt (26)
El Iskandi
36 years
Dillmann A (26)
Ela–Eskendí
37 years
Known as "Sara–Din" and "Sthenden" on at least one list each.[52]
This version of the line of succession does not contain reign lengths.
The following lists are compared in this table:
The first and third regnal lists recorded by Spanish missionary Pedro Páez in 1620.[59] The third list was treated by Páez as another list of regnal names and is placed directly after the second list in his book.[60]
August Dillmann's List B (1853).[62] This list claimed that each king was the son of the previous one.
August Dillmann's List C (1853).[63] This list originates from a manuscript which did not name the kings of Axum who reigned between Arwe and Bazen, and named 13 monarchs between Bazen and Abreha and Atsbeha.
A list recorded by French Orientalist René Basset in his book Études sur l'histoire d'Éthiopie (1882).[46] This list claimed that each king was the son of the previous king, except for Saba Asgad, who is listed as a brother of his predecessor Zaray and both of were sons of Sharguay.[46]
One regnal list included in a book titled History of the Kings of Dabra Yahanes (1903), edited by Italian orientalist Carlo Conti Rossini.[64]
The second of two manuscripts held in the British Museum which were published by British archeologist E. A. Wallis Budge in 1928.[65] French Orientalist René Basset recorded a list of kings that was identical to this manuscript.[46]
According to some chronicles, the father of Abreha and Atsbeha was a king named Seifa Arad.[66] Páez's first list and Bruce's list place this king before Abreha and Atsbeha, but not as their direct predecessor, and the second British Museum manuscript places a similarly named king "Senfa Arad" as their immediate predecessor. Rossini's list names Tazer as their predecessor but adds "Sayfa Ared" as Tazer's throne name.[64] According to a book titled Gedle Abreha and Asbeha from the Church of Abreha wa-Atsbeha, Tazer was the father of Abreha and Atsbeha and his wife was Sofya.[56]
No.
Common Name
List and Position
Name on List
Notes
1
Senfa Asgad or Senfa Arad I
Páez 1 (1)
Zenfâ Azguêd
Páez 3 (1)
Zenfa Azguêd
Bruce (1)
Tzenaf Segued
Dillmann C (1)
Tzénfa–Asgad
2
Senfa Ared
Dillmann B (1)
Tzénfa–A'rěd
Basset (1)
Sēnfa–Ar'ēd
B.M. Manuscript 2 (1)
Ṣenfa 'Ar'ad
3
Bahar Asgad
Páez 1 (2)
Bahar Azguêd
Páez 3 (2)
Bahâr Azguêd
Dillmann B (2)
Bâhr–Asgad
Dillmann C (2)
Bâhr–Sagad
Basset (2)
Bâḥr–Asgēd
B.M. Manuscript 2 (2)
Bāḥer [A]sgad
4
Germa Kalaz
Páez 1 (3)
Guermâ Calez
5
Germa Sor
Dillmann B (3)
Germâ–Sôr
Rossini (1)
Germā Sōr
Rossini's list specified this king's throne name was "Kaleb".[64]
6
Germa Asfare I
Páez 1 (4)
Guermâ Azferê
Páez 3 (3)
Guermâ Azfarê
Bruce (2)
Garima Asfari
Dillmann B (4)
Germâ–Asfarê
Dillmann C (3)
Germâ–Asfar
Basset (3)
Gērmâ–Asfaré
B.M. Manuscript 2 (3)
Germā 'Asfarē
7
Sarada
Páez 1 (5)
Zaradô
Bruce (3)
Saraada
Dillmann C (4)
Ser'âdâ
Known as "Salaaiuba" on at least one regnal list.[63]
8
Kulu Seyon
Páez 1 (6)
Cululeaceôn
Páez 3 (4)
Culule Ceôn
Bruce (4)
Tzion
Dillmann C (5)
Kuelû–la–Zion
9
Sharguay
Páez 1 (7)
Zarguaê
Páez 3 (5)
Cergoû
Bruce (5)
Sargai
Dillmann B (5)
Sarguai
Dillmann C (6)
Sarguai
Basset (4)
Charguâï
Rossini (2)
Sharguāy
B.M. Manuscript 2 (4)
Sharguāy
10
Zaray
Páez 1 (8)
Zarai
Páez 3 (6)
Zeroû
Dillmann B (6)
Zar'ái
Dillmann C (7)
Zarái
Basset (5)
Zarëaï
Rossini (3)
Zarāy
B.M. Manuscript 2 (5)
Zar'ay
11
Bagamay
Páez 3 (7)
Begamâi
Bruce (6)
Bagamai
Dillmann C (8)
Bagâmâi
12
Jan Asgad
Páez 3 (8)
Jan Azguêd
Bruce (7)
Jan Segued
Dillmann C (9)
Djân–Asgad
13
Saba Asgad
Páez 1 (9)
Zarrâ Azguêd
Dillmann B (7)
Sáb'a–Asgad
Basset (6)
Sabëa–Asgēd
Rossini (5)
Sabe' 'Asgad
B.M. Manuscript 2 (6)
Sabe' 'Asgad
14
Seyon Hegez
Páez 1 (10)
Zeôn Haguêz
Páez 3 (9)
Zeôn Hegz
Bruce (8)
Tzion Heges
Dillmann B (8)
Zion–Gezâ
Dillmann C (10)
Zion–Hegez
Basset (7)
Ṣyon–Gēza
Rossini (4)
Ṣeyōn Gezā
B.M. Manuscript 2 (7)
Ṣeyōn Gezā
15
Seyon Geza
Dillmann B (8)
Zion–Gezâ
Basset (7)
Ṣyon–Gēza
Rossini (4)
Ṣeyōn Gezā
B.M. Manuscript 2 (7)
Ṣeyōn Gezā
16
Moal Genha
Páez 1 (11)
Mala Agnâ
Páez 3 (10)
Moaêlguehâ
Bruce (9)
Moal Genha
Dillmann C (11)
Mawàal–Genh
Known as "Malghene" and "Moal–Genha" on at least one other list each.[63]
17
Ahendir
Rossini (6)
'Ahendīr
18
Senfa AradII or Saifa Arad
Páez 1 (12)
Zaf Arâd
Páez 3 (11)
Zaf Arâd
Bruce (10)
Saif Araad
Dillmann B (10)
Saifa–A'rêd
Unlike other lists in this table, this monarch is placed after Agdur instead of before.
Dillmann C (12)
Sâf–Ar'ad
Basset (9)
Ṣēnfa–Ar'ēd
B.M. Manuscript 2 (9)
Ṣenfa 'Ar'ad
19
Tazer
Rossini (7)
Tāzēr
Rossini's list specified this king's throne name was "Safya 'Ar'ad".[64]
Monarchs from Abreha and Atsbeha to the end of the Axumite kingdom
Mural in Qusayr 'Amra depicting an Axumite king from the first half of the eighth century.
The following lists chronicle the kings who reigned from Abreha and Atsbeha, the kings of Axum to convert to Christianity in the 4th century, to the last kings who ruled the kingdom before it fell in the 10th century. Dil Na'od is usually considered the last king of the kingdom, but some lists name some monarchs who came after him.
The 1922 regnal list attempted to combine the different variations into one line succession dating from 306 to 920 E.C., and did this by placing most of the kings in variation 1 directly after Abreha and Atsbeha and then continuing the line with the kings of variations 2 and 3. This allowed a sufficient number of kings to reign between Abreha and Atsbeha in the early 4th century and Alla Amidas in the late 5th century, and also continue the line of kings into the early 10th century.
Variation 1
This version of the line of succession after Abreha and Atsbeha contains lesser known rulers, and is quoted by writers more rarely. These lists do not go up to the reign of Dil Na'od, but do contain reign lengths for individual monarchs. The approximate time span of these rulers goes from the early 4th century when Abreha and Atsbeha converted to Christianity to the reign of Gebre Meskel in the early or mid-6th century. The reign lengths on Páez's and Dillmann's lists add up to 265–280 years, which may be slightly too long for the gap between the historical reigns of Ezana (one of the likely inspirations for Abreha and Atsbeha) and Gebre Meskel.
The following lists are compared in this table:
The second regnal list recorded by Spanish missionary Pedro Páez in 1620.[67] A manuscript from Debre Libanos of unknown age has a similar line of succession to this list.[8]
August Dillmann's List A (1853), which was compiled from multiple sources.[68]
A manuscript quoted by E. A. Wallis Budge, who did not specify the origin.[69] He believed these monarchs were "kinglets" who ruled parts of Ethiopia separate from other lines of kings between 360 and 480.[70]
Joint co-ruler with Sahel I according to this list. According to Budge, the three kings divided each day into three parts, so that each king was absolute during a different time of day.[70]
2
Atsbeha I (Sole rule)
12 years
Páez 2 (2)
Azbehâ
12 years
Dillmann A (2)
Atzbeha–ela–Abreha
12 years
Dillmann noted that some lists instead claim that "Ela–Abreha" ruled by himself after the joint reign for 14 years.[68]
3
Asfeh I
5–7 years
Páez 2 (3)
Azfahâ
7 years
Dillmann A (3)
Ela–Asfeha
7 years
Dillmann noted that some lists give 6 years of reign and at least one list gave 5 years.[68]
4
Sahel I
14 years
Páez 2 (4)
Çahêl
14 years
Dillmann A (4)
Ela–Saḥl
14 years
Budge (3)
'Ella Shāhel
14 years
Joint co-ruler with Abreha and Atsbeha according to this list. According to Budge, the three kings divided each day into three parts, so that each king was absolute during a different time of day.[70]
Dillmann noted that at least a couple of lists give 5 years of rule for this king.[68]
Budge (6)
'Ella 'Asfeḥ
1 year
8
Atsbeha II
5–17 years
Páez 2 (8)
Azbahâ
5 years
Dillmann A (8)
Ela–A'tzbeha
5 years
Dillmann noted that at least a couple of lists give 16 or 17 years of rule for this king.[68] Known as "Asfaha" on at least a couple of lists.[68]
Budge (7)
'Ella 'Abrehā
5 years
9
Ameda II
16–17 years
Páez 2 (9)
Amidâ
17 years
Dillmann A (9)
Ela–Amêdâ
16 years
Dillmann noted that at least a couple of lists give 6 or 7 years of rule for this king.[68]
Budge (8)
'Ella 'Amīdā
16 years
10
Abreha II
2–7 months
Páez 2 (10)
Abrahâ
7 months
Dillmann A (10)
Ela–Abreha
6 months
Dillmann noted that at least a couple of lists give 2 months of rule for this king.[68]
Budge (9)
'Ella 'Abrehā
6 months
11
Sahel II
2 months
Páez 2 (11)
Çahêl
2 months
Dillmann A (11)
Ela–Saḥl
2 months
Budge (10)
'Ella Shāhel
2 months
12
Gobaz I
2–14 years
Páez 2 (12)
Gabêz
2 years
Dillmann A (12)
Ela–Gabaz
2 years
Dillmann noted that at least one list gives 14 years of rule for this king.[68]
Budge (11)
'Ella Gabōz or 'Ella Gōbāz
2 years
According to Budge, this king murdered his predecessor Sahel II, and then married the previous king's daughter 'Admās. He later fell in love with a pagan queen named Lāb, and married her. A brother of 'Admās rose up and killed both 'Ella Gōbāz and Lāb, and then became king as 'Ella Shāhel (III).[70] Budge dated this king's reign to c. 392.[70]
According to Budge, this king was called "Arwe" due to his shocking cruelties and wickedness.[72] He was defeated by 'Ella 'Aṣbehā (IV?), likely the same person as Kaleb, otherwise known as "Elesbaan".[72]
Possibly the same king as Kostantinos from variations 2 and 3. Budge however noted that Constantine was one of the alternate names of Kaleb.[72] This would make sense chronologically, as both Israel and Gabra Maskal are noted to be sons of Kaleb in multiple sources.
Dillmann A (31)
Constantinos
28 years
Dillmann noted that least one list gives 29 years of rule for this king.[68]
While the 8-month reign is certainly recorded on at least a couple of lists, Dillmann found that most lists he looked at were missing the number of months this king reigned.[68]
This list states that it was during this joint reign that the Church of Axum was founded.[67] It possible that these names are a repetition of the last two kings to reign before the Nativity of Jesus. Dillmann noted that one list he saw claimed that king "Nalek" reigned after Gabra Maskal for 11 years, but he personally doubted the accuracy of this list.[68]
Variation 2
This version of the line of succession after Abreha and Atsbeha includes many notable rulers such as Alla Amidas, Kaleb, Gebre Meskel and Dil Na'od, but does not include reign lengths for most rulers. The time span of these rulers should go from the early 4th century with Abreha and Atsbeha to the 10th century with the end of Dil Na'od's reign. However, only five kings are named between Abreha and Atsbeha and Alla Amidas (who ruled in the late 5th century), an approximate period of over 150 years. The 1922 regnal list resolved this by placing most kings of variation 1 between Abreha and Atsbeha and Amsi.
The following lists are compared in this table:
The first regnal list quoted by Pedro Páez in 1620.[73] After Dil Na'od, this list skips the Zagwe dynasty altogether and moves directly to the restoration of the line of Menelik with Yekuno Amlak.
The regnal list recorded by English Egyptologist Henry Salt in his book A Voyage to Abyssinia (1814).[74]
August Dillmann's List B (1853).[75] This list claimed that each king was the son of the previous king.
A list published by René Basset in 1882.[76] This list claimed that each king was the son of the previous king.
A regnal list included in a book titled History of the Kings of Dabra Yahanes (1903), edited by Italian orientalist Carlo Conti Rossini.[77]
A manuscript held in the British Museum published by British archaeologist E. A. Wallis Budge (filed under Oriental No. 821) in 1928.[77] French Orientalist René Basset recorded a list of kings that was nearly identical to this manuscript, except that a king named "Geda Jan" reigned between Degna Djan and Anbase Wedem.[76] This additional name is also found on the Paris Chronicle, which otherwise has a similar line of succession to Salt's list.[8] Some historians believe that this king's name was an alternate name for Degna Jan.[78]
The four kings Asfah, Arfad, Amosi and Seladoba reigned for a total of 32 years according to Salt's list,[54] though he personally felt that it was more likely they reigned for a total of 70 years.[79] Salt noted that the kings from Ameda to Dil Na'od did not have reign lengths assigned to them in the chronicles but may have reigned for a total of 354 years.[80]Pedro Páez stated that the next three kings after Abreha and Atsbeha on his regnal list were brothers who reigned together and divided each day into three parts between themselves.[73] A similar story is recorded elsewhere in reference to Abreha, Atsbeha and Shahel.[70]
This list noted this king reigned for half a day.[75] Dillmann noted that one list explained that the king was crushed by a crowd of people who gathered around him and since then a barrier has been erected in front of kings to prevent this from happening again.[75]
Basset (25)
Aïzour
This list noted the king reigned for half a day and was suffocated by a crowd of people in the capital, with many men dying of suffocation also. Since then, a barrier has been placed in front the king.
Rossini (25)
'Ayzūr
Rossini noted this king reigned for half a day.[84]
This list claimed this king lived for 150 years.[75]
B.M. Manuscript (28)
Wedem 'Asfarē
34
Armah
Páez 1 (25)
Armâ
Bruce (15)
Armaha
Salt (27)
Armah
Dillmann B (28)
Armáh
Basset (29)
Armâkh
Rossini (28)
'Armāh
B.M. Manuscript (29)
Armāẖ
35
Jan Asfeh
Bruce (16)
Jan Asfeha
36
Hezba Nan
Páez 1 (26)
Ezbinani
The Debre Libanos manuscript, which otherwise follows the third list recorded by Paez, names this king as the successor of Armah and the last king before the Zagwe dynasty.[85]
Not included in Salt's list, but mentioned afterwards as a queen who overthrew the Axumite dynasty and moved the capital to Lasta in c. 925. The alternate name "Assaat" is probably meant to reference Esato.
Variation 3
These lists continue the line of kings after Dil Na'od. The kings from Anbase Wedem to Armah are usually placed before Dil Na'od on other lists, but are placed chronologically after him on these lists. Degna Djan is completely omitted from this variation.
Two regnal lists are compared below:
The third regnal list quoted by Pedro Páez in 1620.[15] This list mostly similar to Páez's first list until the reign of Ayzur, after whom there is significant variation in the order of the kings, and two queens are also added.
August Dillmann's List C (1853).[87] Like Páez's third list, this list names several kings who reigned after Dil Na'od, most of whom usually appear before him on other lists.
These lists are very similar except at three points. Páez's list includes an additional king named "Amiamid" between Alameda and Tazena, whose name could be a duplication of Alameda. The queens named Esato and Gudit are considered to be separate individuals on Páez's list who ruled different areas of Ethiopia, but Dillmann's list instead considers both of these names to refer to the same queen. Finally, Dillmann's list adds a woman named Terdai Gabaz, through whom the Zagwe dynasty was able to rise to power.
This list described this queen as a "vile and godless woman" and an "unbelieving brood" who lived in Amhara and destroyed churches.[87] This list also claimed that she was known as Gudit in Tigray, unlike Páez's third list when named Esato and Gudit as separate rulers. Dillmann's list C specifies that this queen reigned for 40 years.
A queen who reigned for 40 years in Tigray and destroyed all the churches.[88]
Dillmann C (23)
Guedîth
This list claimed Esato and Gudit were the same woman and that she was known as Esato in Amhara and Gudit in Tigray.[89]
25
Anbase Wedem
Páez 3 (26)
Ambaçâ Udm
Dillmann C (24)
Anbasâ–Udem
26
Akala Wedem
Páez 3 (27)
Hualâ Udêm
Dillmann C (25)
Kualâ–Udem
27
Germa Asfare II
Páez 3 (28)
Guerma Azfarê
Dillmann C (26)
Germâ–Asfarê
28
Zergaz
Páez 3 (29)
Zergâz
Dillmann C (27)
Zergaz
29
Degna Mikael
Páez 3 (30)
Degnâ Michael
Dillmann C (28)
Degnâ–Michael
30
Badagaz (Gadagosh?)
Páez 3 (31)
Badgâz
Dillmann C (29)
Badagaz
31
Armah II
Páez 3 (32)
Armâh
The Zagwe dynasty reigned after this king according to this list.
Dillmann C (30)
Armâḥ
—
Hezba Nan?
Dillmann C (31)
Shinahanni
While Dillmann placed this king after Armah II, he noted that he only found this king on one list.[87]
32
Terdai Gabaz
Dillmann C (32)
Terdâe'–Gabaz
Some sources claim this was an alternate name for Gudit.[90] However Gudit is already named earlier in this list. This list states that the throne was taken by a family who were not "of the family of David" and mentions after naming Terdai Gabaz.[87] This suggests that she can be equated with Masoba Warq, a daughter of Dil Na'od, who, according to tradition was the wife of Mara Takla Haymanot, the founder of the Zagwe dynasty.
Ethiopian traditions are in agreement that the Zagwe dynasty ruled at some point after the fall of Axum and directly preceded the Solomonic dynasty, but differ regarding when this dynasty first came to power, how long it remained in power and even the number of kings who ruled.
Ethiopian historian Sergew Hable Selassie noted that there are three main lists of Zagwe kings, known as the short, long and longer lists.[91] He felt that the longer list was probably the most accurate.[91]
Short List
Recorded in Carlo Conti Rossini's work Storia d'Etiopia (p. 305).[91]Pedro Páez recorded a version with reign lengths and noted this list was likely incomplete.[92]Manuel de Almeida also quoted a list that claimed this dynasty only had 5 kings who ruled for 143 years.[93] A manuscript held in Paris (no. 64) claimed the Zagwe dynasty had 5 kings whose rule began in either 1145 or 1147 and ended in either 1268 or 1270.[94]
Recorded in Carlo Conti Rossini's work Storia d'Etiopia[91] and René Basset's Études sur l'histoire d'Éthiopie.[95] Also recorded in the Paris Chronicle and a manuscript held in the British Museum (Or. 821, fol. 28b).[93][96] The 1922 regnal list of Ethiopia uses a similar list of kings for the Zagwe dynasty, but with some differences in reign length, giving the dynasty a total of 333 years of rule.[97]
Beginning with the reign of Yekuno Amlak, the line of rulers becomes more consistently noted and dated across various regnal lists. However, some emperors have been excluded from certain lists:
The first regnal list quoted by Pedro Páez omitted two of the sons of Yagbe'u Seyon.
The second regnal list quoted by Pedro Páez omitted Andreyas, who reigned for 6 months in 1429 and 1430.[100] The same regnal list did not name directly the ephemeral sons of Yagbe'u Seyon, but simply stated that two of his sons ruled for three years followed by three grandsons who reigned for two years.[100]
The above list omits at least one of the sons of Yagbe'u Seyon. The second Amda Seyon is credited with having "fought ten kings and killed all of them", but this is likely a confusion with Amda Seyon I.[102]
The longest regnal list of Ethiopian rulers was written in 1922 and contained 321 names from 4530 BC to 1779 AD. This list combines names from the majority of other regnal lists along with many additional names of rulers of ancient Nubia (which was often called Aethiopia historically) and ancient Egypt, as well as names that originate from the Biblical, ancient Greek, Coptic and Arabic literature. This regnal list first received attention in the Western world when it was published in Charles Fernand Rey's 1927 book In the Country of the Blue Nile after he had been given a copy by the Prince regentTafari Makannon.[103]
^ abcdSelassie, Sergew Hable (1972). Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270. Addis Ababa. p. 2.((cite book)): CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Willie F. Page; R. Hunt Davis, Jr., eds. (2005), "Makeda, Queen (queen of Sheba)", Encyclopedia of African History and Culture, vol. 1 (revised ed.), Facts on File, pp. 158–159
^ abcSelassie, Sergew Hable (1972). Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270. Addis Ababa. pp. 92–93.((cite book)): CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ abcdefghijklSellassie, Sergew Hable (1972). Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270. Addis Ababa. pp. 240–241.((cite book)): CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Kropp, Manfred (2006). "Ein später Schüler des Julius Africanus zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts in Äthiopien". In Wallraf, Martin (ed.). Julius Africanus und die christliche Weltchronistik (in German). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN978-3-11-019105-9.
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