The 2011 Syrian uprising is an uprising occurring in Syria. Protests began on 26 January 2011, and escalated to uprising status by March 15, 2011. It is influenced by concurrent protests in the region, and has been described as "unprecedented."[14][15] Like the revolutionary movements in Tunisia and Egypt, it has seen non-violent protests such as marches andd hunger strikes, but it has also involved violence, with armed civilian elements opening fire on internal security forces and the army, as well as vandalism of public property, banks and other facilities.[16] Another difference regards the scale of involvement; while 11 per cent of Egypt's 80 million people said they took part in protests that spanned a period of less than one month, estimates of the number of people from among Syria's population of 23 million to participate in protests over the course of many months is tens or hundreds of thousands.[17]
More than 1,400 people have been killed, many more injured, and thousands detained. Human rights groups and UN officials says Syrian security forces have used brute force to disperse unarmed demonstrators, and are responsible for killing more than 1,200 civilians. The Syrian government says armed Islamist elements in the country are responsible for the civilian casualties and the killing of more than 340 members of the security forces. United NationsSecretary-GeneralBan Ki-moon condemned the use of deadly force against protesters as "unacceptable".[18]
As protests continued, the Syrian government used tanks and snipers to force people off the streets. Water and electricity were shut off in the city of Daraa, and security forces began confiscating flour and food.[19] A similar situation was reported in Homs.[20] In May, the Syrian army entered the cities of Baniyas, Hama, Homs, Talkalakh, Latakia, the Al-Midan and Duma districts of Damascus, and several other towns.[21][22][23]
On June 6, unconfirmed reports from witnesses said random gunfire from helicopter gunships killed 10 people in Jisr ash-Shugur.[24][25] On June 8, the Syrian army prepared to launch a siege on Jisr-al Shughour. The Syrian army promised to retaliate against what it called an ambush which had killed 120 policemen,[26] which local residents claimed was actually the Syrian army executing soldiers refusing to fight.[27][28] On June 10 the Syrian army began operations in Jisr ash-Shugur.[29] Activists, fleeing civilians, and soldiers who defected and mutinied have reported that soldiers who refuse to fire on civilians are executed by the Syrian army.[30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40] Reem Haddad, the Syrian information ministry spokeswoman, denied the reports of defections, and instead says it is armed gangs causing trouble.[41]
On June 12, a journalist who snuck into Daraa reported that the Syrian army has blocked off most of town, and will not allow any supplies to come through. Consequently, Daraa is about to face a famine. Five thousand residents there are being held in the local stadium, now used as a detention facility.[42]
Syria had been under an Emergency Law since 1962, effectively suspending most constitutional protections for citizens. Syrian governments justified this state of emergency by pointing to the fact that Syria was in a state of war with Israel. Syrian citizens approve the President by referendum. Syria does not hold multi-party elections for its legislature.[43]
After the 1970 Revolution, President Hafez al-Assad led Syria for nearly 30 years, banning any opposing political party and any opposition candidate in any election. In 1982, at the climax of a six-year Islamic insurgency throughout the country, Hafez al-Assad conducted a scorched earth policy against the town of Hama to quell an Islamist revolt by the Sunni Muslim community, including the Muslim Brotherhood and others.[48] Tens of thousands of people, including 10–80,000 civilians, were killed in the Hama massacre.[47][49][50][51][52][53]
The issue of Hafez al-Assad's succession prompted the 1999 Latakia incident,[54] when violent protests and armed clashes erupted following 1998 People's Assembly's Elections. The violent events were an explosion of a long-running feud between Hafez al-Assad and his younger brother Rifaat.[54] Two people were killed in fire exchanges between Syrian police and Rifaat's supporters during a police crack-down on Rifaat's port compound in Latakia. According to opposition sources, denied by the government, the protests resulted in hundreds of dead and injured.[55] Hafez al-Assad died one year later, from pulmonary fibrosis. He was succeeded by his son Bashar al-Assad, who was appointed after a constitutional amendment lowered the age requirement for President from 40 to his age of 34.[45][46][47] Bashar, who speaks French and English and has a British-born wife, was said to have "inspired hopes" for reform, and a "Damascus Spring" of intense political and social debate took place from January 2000.
Kurdish-Arab riots have prompted increased tension since 2004. That year the Al-Qamishli riots against the government began in the northeastern city of Al-Qamishli. During a chaotic soccer match, some people raised Kurdish flags, and the match turned into a political conflict. In a brutal reaction by Syrian police and clashes between Kurdish and Arab groups, at least 30 people were killed,[56] with some claims indicating a casualty count of about 100 people.[57] Smaller clashes with Kurdish protesters and government measures have continued since.
The al-Assad family is a member of the minority and traditionally impoverished Alawite sect, an offshoot of Shiite Islam that numbers an estimated 6–12 percent of the Syrian population,[58][59][60][61] and has maintained "a tight grip" on Syria's security services, generating "deep resentment" among the Sunni Muslims[60] that make up about three quarters of Syria's population.[62] Minority Kurds have also protested and complained.[63] Al-Assad declared that his state was immune from the kinds of mass protests that took place in Egypt.[64]Bouthaina Shaaban, a presidential adviser, blamed Sunni clerics and preachers for inciting Sunnis to revolt, such as Qatar-based Sheik Youssef al-Qaradawi in a sermon in Doha on 25 March.[65] According to The New York Times, the Syrian government has relied "almost exclusively" on Alawite-dominated units of the security services to fight the uprising. His younger brother Maher al-Assad, commands the army’s Fourth Armored Division, and his brother-in-law, Assef Shawkat, is deputy chief of staff of the army. His family is said to fear that failure to take a hard line on protesters could embolden them, bringing much larger crowds into the streets.[60]
Socio-economic complaints have been reported such as deterioration of living, Syria's turn toward a free market economy leading to reduction of state support for the poor, the erosion of subsidies for basic goods and agriculture, free trade without suitable support to the local industry, and unemployment rate, especially among young people.[66]
Human rights
Human rights in Syria are largely criticized by global organizations.[67] Since 1963, emergency rule has remained in effect which gives security forces sweeping powers of arrest and detention.[68] The country is governed by a one-party state without free elections.[68] The authorities harass and imprison human rights activists and other critics of the government.[69] Rights of expression, association and assembly are strictly controlled.[68][69] Women and ethnic minorities face discrimination.[68][69] According to Human Rights Watch in 2010, al-Assad had failed to improve Syria’s human rights record in the 10 years since he came to power.[70] The organization states that Syria's human rights situation is one of the worst in the world.
On 5 May, the BBC News reported that "The Damascus Center for Human Rights Studies (DCHRS) says snipers and anti-aircraft machine guns are being used to fire on unarmed civilians."[71]
2011
While al-Assad permitted radio stations to play Western pop music, websites such as Amazon.com, Facebook, Wikipedia and YouTube were blocked until 1 January 2011, when all citizens were permitted to sign up for high speed internet, and those sites were allowed.[72] However, a 2007 law requires Internet cafes to record all comments that users post on online chat forums.[73]
In an interview published 31 January 2011, al-Assad declared it was time to reform, that the protests in Egypt, Tunisia, and Yemen indicated a "new era" was coming to the Middle East, and that Arab rulers needed to do more to accommodate their peoples' rising political and economic aspirations.[74][75]
"Down with Bashar al-Assad". Regime-critical graffiti was an early sign of the uprisingThe pre-Baath flag of Syria has been used by some anti-Assad protesters.
The protest movement in Syria was at first modest, and took a while to gain momentum. The events began on 26 January 2011, when Hasan Ali Akleh from Al-Hasakah poured gasoline on himself and set himself on fire, in the same way Tunisian Mohamed Bouazizi had in Tunis on 17 December 2010. According to eyewitnesses, the action was "a protest against the Syrian government".[76][77] Two days later, on 28 January 2011, an evening demonstration was held in Ar-Raqqah, to protest the killing of two soldiers of Kurdish descent.[78]
On 3 February, a "Day of Rage" was called for in Syria from 4 February to 5 February on social media websites Facebook and Twitter. Protesters demanded governmental reform, but most protests took place outside of Syria, and were small.[79][80][81][82] Hundreds marched in Hasaka, but Syrian security forces dispersed the protest and arrested dozens of demonstrators.[83]Al Jazeera labeled Syria a "kingdom of silence", concluding that protests would not succeed due to the popularity of President Bashar al-Assad and concerns over the prospects of insurgency like that seen in neighboring Iraq.[84] A protest in late February at the Libyan Embassy in Damascus to demonstrate against the government of Col. Muammar al-Gaddafi, facing his own major protests in Libya, was met with brutal beatings from Syrian police moving to disperse the demonstration against a friendly regime.[85][86][87]
File:Homs Syria Protests 2011 - 03.jpgThousands of demonstrators gathered for Maghrib (Dusk) prayer in New Clock Square in central Homs.
On 6 March, TIME magazine suggested that all protests needed to explode into a full-fledged rebellion was a flashpoint.[88]Ribal al-Assad said that it was almost time for Syria to be the next domino in the burgeoning Arab Spring.[89] Indeed, on 15 March, the protest movement began to escalate, as simultaneous demonstrations took place in major cities across Syria.[90] Increasingly, the city of Daraa became the focal point for the growing uprising. Over 100,000 people reportedly marched in Daraa on 25 March, but at least 20 protesters were reportedly killed. Protests also spread to other Syrian cities, including Homs, Hama, Baniyas, Jassem, Damascus and Latakia. Over 70 protesters in total were reported dead.[91][92][93][94][95] Late in the month, the first signs were seen that the government was willing to make concessions to the protestors, when al-Assad announced the release of as many as 200 political prisoners.[96] An Assad adviser said the emergency law would be lifted,[97] and Assad accepted the official resignation of the government led by Prime Minister Muhammad Naji al-Otari.[98] Assad denied the emergency law would be lifted at the end of March, however.[99]
On 8 April 2011, protesters in Douma, a Damascus suburb, display signs saying "No for destroying" and "Peaceful"File:Syrian Army in Daraa 9 April 2011.jpgArmed security forces in Daraa, 9 April
In April, the uprising became more extensive, and more violent. Protesters were shot at on 1 April, leading to at least 10 deaths.[100][101] Well over 30 people were killed in a crackdown on protests on 8 April, activists and human rights groups claimed.[102][103][104] Tens of thousands of protesters were prevented from entering Damascus from Douma on 15 April, though this restriction did not prevent widespread protests in many Syrian cities.[105][106][107][106] In late April, major demonstrations occurred in Damascus itself. Other cities where protesting was particularly strong were in Daraa, Baniyas, Al-Qamishli, and Homs.[108][109] The Douma and Harasta sections of Damascus were particularly filled with protesters. Firing throughout the country resulted 88 deaths among security forces and protesters, making it the bloodiest day so far.[108][110] tanks and soldiers entered Daraa and Douma.[111][112] The border with Jordan was also closed.[111][112] According to an activist, 18 people were killed in Daraa.[112]Al Jazeera reported that some soldiers appeared to have been shot by their own comrades-in-arms after refusing orders to fire on protesters.[113] On 29 April, more than 60 protesters were killed in demonstrations across Syria. The United States responded with harsh sanctions against the Syrian government.[114][115][116]
Baniyas was divided in early May into zones of de facto control, with protesters largely controlling the south and security forces enforcing the laws of the government in the north. Major demonstrations saw nearly 20 deaths on 6 May, and the government claimed 11 soldiers were shot by "armed groups" on the same day.[117][118][119] The violent suppression of protests in Homs, Daraa, and other rebellious cities continued throughout the month.[120][121] A 17 May report of claims by refugees coming from Tel Kalakh on the Lebanese border indicated that sectarian attacks may have been occurring. Sunni refugees claimed that uniformed “Shabiha” Alawite militiamen were killing Sunnis in the town of Tel Kalakh. The reporter also stated that according to arms dealers, "sales of black market weapons in Lebanon have skyrocketed in recent weeks driven almost entirely by demand in Syria."[122] Toward the end of the month, 13-year-old Hamza Ali Al-Khateeb's body was delivered to his family with three gun shot wounds and signs of torture, including severed genitals and massive bruising. The dead boy had lived with his parents in a village called “Al Jeezah” or “Al Giza” in Daraa governorate. He joined his family in a rally to break the siege of the city of Daraa. He was detained among hundreds of Syrian during the massacre of Siada, where citizens of Daraa were shot at by Syrian security forces. Hamza was detained amongst hundreds. Opposition activists claimed he was tortured and then shot to death. The chief of Syria's medical examiners association Dr. Akram El-Shaar denying that Hamza was tortured, claimed that he supervised the autopsy in Damascus and that the boy did not have any sign of torture and all signs of disfigurement were due to necrotic decay.[123]
On June 5, the Syrian government said more than 20 Syrian demonstrators were shot dead at the Golan Heights by Israeli forces, when trying to cross the cease-fire line during Naksa Daydemonstrations. This was perceived by Israelis as a way for the Syrian government to divert attention from the Syrian unrest by allowing demonstrators to reach all the way to the Heights.[124][125]
On June 6, the government said that 120 members of the police and security forces were killed by armed groups in Jisr al-Shaghur and that it would act "with force" to combat the "armed gangs".[126][127] A facebook page signed "residents of Jisr al-Shaghur" said there were no armed groups and that "the deaths among soldiers and police were the consequence of defections in the army,"[27][28] also expressing fears of impending slaughter.[127] On June 10 the army began its operations in Jisr al-Shaghur.[41] The same day, clashes also broke out in Maarat al-Numaan near the Turkish border and 23 deaths were reported: a Syrian opposition figure said that tanks shelled the town after thousands of protesters took over the courthouse and police station and set them on fire, while Syria's state-run television said gunmen had opened fire on the town's security headquarters killing security personnel.[128] On June 12, Syrian forces in Jisr al-Shghur said they found a mass grave with the bodies of 10 soldiers, and on June 15, government officials said a second mass grave containing the bodies of at least 70 Syrian security personnel had been discovered.[129]
On 20 June 2011, in a speech lasting nearly an hour, in response to the demands of protesters and foreign pressure, al-Assad promised a "national dialogue" involving movement toward reform, new pariliamentary elections, and greater freedoms. He also urged refugees to return home from Turkey, while assuring them amnesty and blaming all unrest on a small number of "saboteurs".[130]
Shabbiha
Shabbiha (Arabic: الشبيحة), from the word (Shabah, شبح) meaning ghost and sometimes refers to Mercedes Benz cars used in the past by Assad family and allies, is a gang consisting of more than 3,000 members being funded by Assad family, have the authority to do anything toward the people protesting against the government, even though the protesters have no weapons.[131] Members of Shabbiha are described by newspapers and media news channels as Assad’s Mercenaries.[132] Shabbiha are accused for breaking the human rights not only by local newspapers and channels, but also by international media, especially after hundreds of videos which have been uploaded through social-media websites including Facebook and YouTube.[133]
Armed elements
Many elements among the anti-government protesters are armed, and the Syrian government claims these represent Salafists.[134][135][136][137][138] More than 150 members of the Syrian security forces have been killed, which the Syrian government states is due to "armed gangs" being among the protesters, yet the opposition blames the deaths on the regime.[139][140] Syrians have been crossing the border to Lebanon to buy weapons on the black market since the beginning of the protests.[141] Clan leaders in Syrian claim that the armed uprising is of a tribal, revenge-based nature, not Islamist.[142] On June 6, the government said more than 120 security personnel were killed by "armed gangs"; 20 in an ambush and 82 in an attack on a security post.[143] The main centers of unrest – Deraa near Jordan, where the uprising began, Tel Kalakh, Homs, Talbisa and Rastan near Lebanon, and Jisr ash-Shugur near Turkey – have been described as being predominately Sunni Muslim towns and cities close to the country's borders where smuggling has been common for generations, and thus have more access to smuggled weapons.[144]
Sectarian chants by anti-regime protesters have spread fear among Syria's minorities.[145] Christians and other minorities have been protected under Assad rule, which guaranteed religious freedom, and fear that they will suffer the same consequences as the Christians of Iraq if the government is overthrown.[146]
An official from the Obama-administrtion stated "We see the elements of an armed opposition across Syria, in the northwest, we see it as having taken over. There are a lot of them. We don’t really know who these armed groups are," but added they were "religiously based, absolutely."[148]
Foreign involvement
U.S. president Barack Obama accused Iran of secretly aiding Bashar al-Assad in his efforts to quell the protests.[149] U.S. Ambassador Susan Rice has stated that there is evidence of active Iranian support for the Syrian government's crackdown on demonstrators.[150] Iran's Revolutionary Guards are being accused of suppressing the Syrian protesters at the orders of Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei.[151]
Iran has denied any involvement in suppressing the protests.[152]
On the other hand, in mid-April, WikiLeaks revealed that the US has secretly been funding Syrian opposition groups with millions of dollars, including Barada TV.[153][154] In May, the government claimed it arrested some and killed other members of terrorist cells with foreign ties it cited as having killed military and police personnel.[155][156]
Reactions
Domestic
Arrests and convictions
Days before protests planned for 5 February, Syrian authorities arrested several political activists, such as businessman Ghassan al-Najar, leader of the Islamic Democratic movement,[157][158] the writer Ali al-Abdallah,[159] Abbas Abbas, from the Syrian Communist Party[160] and several other political personalities of Kurdish background, such as Adnan Mustafa.[161]
On 14 February, blogger and student Tal al-Mallohi was convicted of spying for the United States and sentenced to five years in prison. Washington denied these allegations and asked for al-Mallohi's immediate release. On 15 February under pressure from human rights organizations, the Syrian government released Ghassan al-Najar after he went on a hunger strike following his arrest for calling for mass protests.[162]
On 22 March Syrian authorities arrested Loay Hussein, a human rights campaigner.[163] On 25 March there were reports of mass arrests and detentions of protesters taking place.[164]
On 29 April Dorothy Parvaz of Al Jazeera arrived in Damascus and was not heard of for several days[165] The Syrian government later confirmed that she had been detained, she had attempted to enter the country illegally with an expired Iranian passport.[166] She was released on 18 May after detention in Syria and Iran.
A prominent LGBT anti-government blogger called Amina Arraf was allegedly arrested by Syrian authorities, but questions arose of whether she was a real person in the first place.[167] She later tuned out to be an American man blogging under a false name, who had used a photo of a random British woman as that of "Amina".[168][169]
Allegations of rape
Defected soldiers reported rapes in restive towns and districts.[170]
Censorship
On 5 February, Internet services were said to have been curbed, although Facebook and YouTube were reported to have been restored three days later.[171] Suggestions were made that easing the ban could be a way to track activists.[172]
Concessions
On 19 March by legislative decree 35, al-Assad shortened the length of mandatory army conscription from 21 months to 18 months.[173][174]
On 20 March, the Syrian government announced that it would release 15 children who had been arrested on 6 March for writing pro-democracy graffiti.[175]
On 23 March, by regional decree 120, Faisal Ahmad Kolthoum was removed as Governor of Daraa.[15][176]
On 24 March, al-Assad's media adviser, Buthaina Shaaban, said that the government will be "studying the possibility of lifting the emergency law and licensing political parties". The Syrian government also announced a cut in personal taxation rates, an increase in public sector salaries of 1,500 Syrian pounds ($32.60 US) a month and pledges to increase press freedom, create more employment opportunities, and reduce corruption.[177][178][179]
On 26 March, Syrian authorities freed more than 200 political prisoners – 70 according to other sources – mostly Islamists, held in Saidnaya prison.[180]
On 27 March, Bouthaina Shaaban confirmed that the emergency law would be lifted, but did not say when.[97]
On 31 March, al-Assad set up a committee of legal experts to study legislation that would pave the way to replacing decades-old emergency laws. The committee was to complete its study by 25 April. Al-Assad also set up a judicial committee tasked with investigating the circumstances that led to the death of Syrian civilians and security forces in the cities of Daraa and Latakia.[181]
On 6 April, it was reported that teachers would once again be allowed to wear the niqab, and that the government has closed the country's only casino.[182]
On 7 April, al-Assad relieved the Governor of Homs province from his duties and issued a decree granting nationality to thousands of Kurds living in the eastern al Hasakah province[183] while the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said the 48 Kurds were released, more than a year after they were arrested in the eastern city of Raqqa.[184] This came a day after al-Assad met with Kurdish tribal leaders to discuss citizenship issues concerning the Kurds of Syria’s north-eastern provinces, as hundreds of thousands of Kurds were stripped of their citizenship rights as a result of the 1962 national census.[185]
On 16 April, al-Assad spoke to the People's Assembly in a televised speech, stating that he expected his government to lift the emergency law the following week. He acknowledged there is a gap between citizens and the state, and that government has to "keep up with the aspirations of the people".[186] Later in the day he welcomed the new ministers in the Cabinet of Syria with a speech containing more specifics (full text). He spoke of the importance of reaching "a state of unity, unity between the government, state institutions and the people"; stressed the need for dialogue and consultation in multiple channels, popular support, trust and transparency; explained the interrelatedness of reform and the needs of citizens for services, security and dignity. He stated the first priorities were citizenship for Kurds, lifting the state of emergency in the coming week or at the latest the week after, regulating demonstrations without chaos and sabotage, political party law, local administration law in both structure and elections, and new and modern media law, all with public timeframes. The next topics were unemployment, the economy, rural services, attracting investment, the public and private sectors, justice, corruption, petty bribery, tax reform and reducing government waste, followed by tackling government itself with more participation, e-government, decentralization, effectiveness and efficiency, as well as closer cooperation with civil society, mass organizations and trade unions.
On 19 April, a bill was approved by the Syrian government to lift the emergency law.[187] Two days later, al-Assad signed legislative decree 50 into law.[188][189]
On 30 April, Prime Minister Adel Safar announced a comprehensive plan for reforms in the coming weeks in three areas: political reform, security and judicial reform; economic reform and social policies; and the development of administration and governmental work.[190][191]
On 22 March, there were reports in The Guardian that the Syrian authorities had been organising pro-Assad rallies and distributing propaganda blaming the unrest on saboteurs and infiltrators.[192] On 25 March, pro-Assad rallies were held in Damascus.[164] On June 15, thousands of supporters of president Assad carried a 2,000ft Syrian flag in central Damacus.[193][194]
Other
On 8 March, SANA, the official Syrian news agency, published an article on its website titled "President al-Assad issued a decree provides for a legislative grant amnesty for political crimes committed before the date of 2011-03-08". Three hours later, the publication was removed.[195] Hours later, Syrian authorities released Haitham al-Maleh, an 80-year-old former judge, one of al-Assad's most outspoken critics, under an amnesty marking the anniversary of the 1963 coup which brought the Ba'ath Party to power.[196][197] Twelve Syrian human rights organisations called on the government to scrap the state of emergency which had been in effect for almost 50 years.[198]
On 12 March, newly released Haitham al-Maleh announced in a YouTube video his support and assistance to the Syrian youth who are behind the new wave of protests and hoped that he will soon see democracy in Syria.[199]
On 16 February, regime critic and director of the Organisation for Democracy and Freedom in Syria (ODFS) Ribal al-Assad, son of Rifaat al-Assad and cousin to Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, held a press conference in London, in which he made it clear that he "does not want to see a Syrian revolution, but a peaceful change of power".[200] On 5 April interview, Ribal al-Assad warned of Syria's risk for a civil war, saying[201]
Everyone in Syria has seen what is happening in Arab countries but in Syria there are many minorities. Everyone has arms and everyone will want to defend their own people. It is like what happened in Iraq.
File:A Collage of Syrian Martyrs.jpgA demonstrator in Cairo holding a collage of some of those allegedly killed in the Syrian uprising.Rally in 2011 in support of Syrian President al-Assad in SydneyDemonstration in Montreal on 27 March, in solidarity with the anti-regime protestors
The European Union,[202] the Secretary-General of the United Nations,[203] and many Western governments condemned the Syrian government's response to the protests and expressed support for the protesters' right to exercise their free speech.[204][205][206][207][208][209] Many fellow Arab governments, however, expressed solidarity with Assad and concurred with his administration's position that Syria is being targeted by "conspiracies" attempting to "destabilize" the country.[210][211][212][213][214]Turkey[215] and Israel[216] are the only Middle Eastern countries to have condemned Assad and expressed support for international efforts to thwart the security crackdown.
On June 7, the Syrian Ambassador to France Lamia Shakkour was impersonated in announcing her resignation on France 24 over the protests through a caller. The elaborate hoax was later exposed, resulting in the network filing legal charges.[217][218]
File:Syria Daraa 17 april 2011 - 01.jpgA protester in Daraa holds a placard thanking the BBC News while another makes fun of a local television channel.
On 23 March, a column was published in The Daily Telegraph by Con Coughlin, the newspaper's executive foreign editor, calling for the creation of a no-fly zone over Syria to protect innocent protesters.[223]
Internet activists
As in the revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt, the internet is playing a major role in the organization and covering of the protests. The largest Facebook site in support of the Syrian uprising called "The Syrian Revolution 2011" alone has more than 200,000 supporters. The site reports on news related to the uprising and provides general guidelines for the protests. For every Friday, the site suggests a new name that has so far been adopted by the demonstrators in Syria.
Since international news media is banned in Syria, the main source of information has been private videos usually taken by mobile phone cameras and uploaded to Youtube. Such videos are difficult to verify independently, and several TV stations have shown older footage from Iraq and Lebanon, which was claimed to have been filmed in Syria.[224][225]
^Robert Fisk: Freedom, democracy and human rights in Syria, The Independent, Thursday, 16 September 2010
^"Hama". GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 14 November 2009.
^ abGeorge, Alan. Syria: neither bread nor freedom. 2003. p.115.
^Taylor & Francis Group. Europea World Year Book 2004. Europa Publications, 2004. Volume 2, p.4056
^Brandon, James (15 February 2007). "The PKK and Syria's Kurds". Washington, DC 20036, USA: Terrorism Monitor, The Jamestown Foundation. p. Volume 5, Issue 3. ((cite news)): Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)CS1 maint: location (link)[dead link]
^MidEastWeb. Kurdish agony – the forgotten massacre of Qamishlo. March 2004.[2] MidEastWeb
^Khaled Yacoub Oweis, additional reporting by Mariam Karouny in Beirut; Suleiman al-Khalidi in Amman; Sami Aboudi in Cairo; writing by Yara Bayoumy; editing by Samia Nakhoul and Paul Taylor (21 April 2011). "Syria's Assad ends state of emergency". Reuters. Retrieved 21 April 2011.((cite news)): CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Lawson, Fred Haley, ed. (2009). Demystifying Syria. London: Saqi. ISBN9780863566547.
Wright, Robin (2008). Dreams and Shadows: The Future of the Middle East. New York: Penguin Press. pp. 212–261. ISBN1594201110.
Ziadeh, Radwan (2011). Power and Policy in Syria: Intelligence Services, Foreign Relations and Democracy in the Modern Middle East. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN9781848854345.
.svg)
.jpg)
_Montreal_Syrian_solidarity_demonstration_March_27.jpg)
