In physics, the acoustic wave equation is a second-order partial differential equation that governs the propagation of acoustic waves through a material medium resp. a standing wavefield. The equation describes the evolution of acoustic pressure p or particle velocity u as a function of position x and time t. A simplified (scalar) form of the equation describes acoustic waves in only one spatial dimension, while a more general form describes waves in three dimensions. Propagating waves in a pre-defined direction can also be calculated using a first order one-way wave equation.

For lossy media, more intricate models need to be applied in order to take into account frequency-dependent attenuation and phase speed. Such models include acoustic wave equations that incorporate fractional derivative terms, see also the acoustic attenuation article or the survey paper.^[1]

In one dimension

Equation

The wave equation describing a standing wave field in one dimension (position ${\displaystyle x}$) is

${\displaystyle {\partial ^{2}p \over \partial x^{2))-{1 \over c^{2)){\partial ^{2}p \over \partial t^{2))=0,}$

where ${\displaystyle p}$ is the acoustic pressure (the local deviation from the ambient pressure), and where ${\displaystyle c}$ is the speed of sound.^[2]

Solution

Provided that the speed ${\displaystyle c}$ is a constant, not dependent on frequency (the dispersionless case), then the most general solution is

${\displaystyle p=f(ct-x)+g(ct+x)}$

where ${\displaystyle f}$ and ${\displaystyle g}$ are any two twice-differentiable functions. This may be pictured as the superposition of two waveforms of arbitrary profile, one (${\displaystyle f}$) traveling up the x-axis and the other (${\displaystyle g}$) down the x-axis at the speed ${\displaystyle c}$. The particular case of a sinusoidal wave traveling in one direction is obtained by choosing either ${\displaystyle f}$ or ${\displaystyle g}$ to be a sinusoid, and the other to be zero, giving

${\displaystyle p=p_{0}\sin(\omega t\mp kx)}$.

where ${\displaystyle \omega }$ is the angular frequency of the wave and ${\displaystyle k}$ is its wave number.

Derivation

The derivation of the wave equation involves three steps: derivation of the equation of state, the linearized one-dimensional continuity equation, and the linearized one-dimensional force equation.

The equation of state (ideal gas law)

${\displaystyle PV=nRT}$

In an adiabatic process, pressure P as a function of density ${\displaystyle \rho }$ can be linearized to

${\displaystyle P=C\rho \,}$

where C is some constant. Breaking the pressure and density into their mean and total components and noting that ${\displaystyle C={\frac {\partial P}{\partial \rho ))}$:

${\displaystyle P-P_{0}=\left({\frac {\partial P}{\partial \rho ))\right)(\rho -\rho _{0})}$.

The adiabatic bulk modulus for a fluid is defined as

${\displaystyle B=\rho _{0}\left({\frac {\partial P}{\partial \rho ))\right)_{adiabatic))$

which gives the result

${\displaystyle P-P_{0}=B{\frac {\rho -\rho _{0)){\rho _{0))))$.

Condensation, s, is defined as the change in density for a given ambient fluid density.

${\displaystyle s={\frac {\rho -\rho _{0)){\rho _{0))))$

The linearized equation of state becomes

${\displaystyle p=Bs\,}$ where p is the acoustic pressure (${\displaystyle P-P_{0))$).

The continuity equation (conservation of mass) in one dimension is

${\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \rho }{\partial t))+{\frac {\partial }{\partial x))(\rho u)=0}$.

Where u is the flow velocity of the fluid. Again the equation must be linearized and the variables split into mean and variable components.

${\displaystyle {\frac {\partial }{\partial t))(\rho _{0}+\rho _{0}s)+{\frac {\partial }{\partial x))(\rho _{0}u+\rho _{0}su)=0}$

Rearranging and noting that ambient density changes with neither time nor position and that the condensation multiplied by the velocity is a very small number:

${\displaystyle {\frac {\partial s}{\partial t))+{\frac {\partial }{\partial x))u=0}$

Euler's Force equation (conservation of momentum) is the last needed component. In one dimension the equation is:

${\displaystyle \rho {\frac {Du}{Dt))+{\frac {\partial P}{\partial x))=0}$,

where ${\displaystyle D/Dt}$ represents the convective, substantial or material derivative, which is the derivative at a point moving along with the medium rather than at a fixed point.

Linearizing the variables:

${\displaystyle (\rho _{0}+\rho _{0}s)\left({\frac {\partial }{\partial t))+u{\frac {\partial }{\partial x))\right)u+{\frac {\partial }{\partial x))(P_{0}+p)=0}$.

Rearranging and neglecting small terms, the resultant equation becomes the linearized one-dimensional Euler Equation:

${\displaystyle \rho _{0}{\frac {\partial u}{\partial t))+{\frac {\partial p}{\partial x))=0}$.

Taking the time derivative of the continuity equation and the spatial derivative of the force equation results in:

${\displaystyle {\frac {\partial ^{2}s}{\partial t^{2))}+{\frac {\partial ^{2}u}{\partial x\partial t))=0}$

${\displaystyle \rho _{0}{\frac {\partial ^{2}u}{\partial x\partial t))+{\frac {\partial ^{2}p}{\partial x^{2))}=0}$.

Multiplying the first by ${\displaystyle \rho _{0))$, subtracting the two, and substituting the linearized equation of state,

${\displaystyle -{\frac {\rho _{0)){B)){\frac {\partial ^{2}p}{\partial t^{2))}+{\frac {\partial ^{2}p}{\partial x^{2))}=0}$.

The final result is

${\displaystyle {\partial ^{2}p \over \partial x^{2))-{1 \over c^{2)){\partial ^{2}p \over \partial t^{2))=0}$

where ${\displaystyle c={\sqrt {\frac {B}{\rho _{0))))}$ is the speed of propagation.

In three dimensions

Equation

Feynman^[3] provides a derivation of the wave equation for sound in three dimensions as

${\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}p-{1 \over c^{2)){\partial ^{2}p \over \partial t^{2))=0,}$

where ${\displaystyle \nabla ^{2))$ is the Laplace operator, ${\displaystyle p}$ is the acoustic pressure (the local deviation from the ambient pressure), and ${\displaystyle c}$ is the speed of sound.

A similar looking wave equation but for the vector field particle velocity is given by

${\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}\mathbf {u} \;-{1 \over c^{2)){\partial ^{2}\mathbf {u} \; \over \partial t^{2))=0}$.

In some situations, it is more convenient to solve the wave equation for an abstract scalar field velocity potential which has the form

${\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}\Phi -{1 \over c^{2)){\partial ^{2}\Phi \over \partial t^{2))=0}$

and then derive the physical quantities particle velocity and acoustic pressure by the equations (or definition, in the case of particle velocity):

${\displaystyle \mathbf {u} =\nabla \Phi \;}$,

${\displaystyle p=-\rho {\partial \over \partial t}\Phi }$.

Solution

The following solutions are obtained by separation of variables in different coordinate systems. They are phasor solutions, that is they have an implicit time-dependence factor of ${\displaystyle e^{i\omega t))$ where ${\displaystyle \omega =2\pi f}$ is the angular frequency. The explicit time dependence is given by

${\displaystyle p(r,t,k)=\operatorname {Real} \left[p(r,k)e^{i\omega t}\right]}$

Here ${\displaystyle k=\omega /c\ }$ is the wave number.

Cartesian coordinates

${\displaystyle p(r,k)=Ae^{\pm ikr))$.

Cylindrical coordinates

${\displaystyle p(r,k)=AH_{0}^{(1)}(kr)+\ BH_{0}^{(2)}(kr)}$.

where the asymptotic approximations to the Hankel functions, when ${\displaystyle kr\rightarrow \infty }$, are

${\displaystyle H_{0}^{(1)}(kr)\simeq {\sqrt {\frac {2}{\pi kr))}e^{i(kr-\pi /4)))$

${\displaystyle H_{0}^{(2)}(kr)\simeq {\sqrt {\frac {2}{\pi kr))}e^{-i(kr-\pi /4)))$.

Spherical coordinates

${\displaystyle p(r,k)={\frac {A}{r))e^{\pm ikr))$.

Depending on the chosen Fourier convention, one of these represents an outward travelling wave and the other a nonphysical inward travelling wave. The inward travelling solution wave is only nonphysical because of the singularity that occurs at r=0; inward travelling waves do exist.