Schematic of Intelligent Cruise Control. The red car automatically maintains a safe distance from the blue car.
External videos
video icon Adaptive cruise control by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (example video)

Adaptive cruise control (ACC) is a type of advanced driver-assistance system for road vehicles that automatically adjusts the vehicle speed to maintain a safe distance from vehicles ahead. As of 2019, it is also called by 20 unique names that describe that basic functionality. This is also known as Dynamic cruise control.[1]

Control is based on sensor information from on-board sensors. Such systems may use a radar, laser sensor or a camera setup allowing the vehicle to brake when it detects the car is approaching another vehicle ahead, then accelerate when traffic allows it to.

ACC technology is regarded as a key component of future generations of intelligent cars. The technology enhances passenger safety and convenience as well as increasing road capacity by maintaining optimal separation between vehicles and reducing driver errors. Vehicles with autonomous cruise control are considered a Level 1 autonomous car, as defined by SAE International.[2] When combined with another driver assist feature such as lane centering, the vehicle is considered a Level 2 autonomous car.

Adaptive cruise control does not provide full autonomy: the system only provides some help to the driver, but does not drive the car by itself.[3]

History

"Distronic Plus" display on Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)
ACC radar antenna

Types

The Jeep adaptive cruise control radar sensor located in the center of the lower grill
Autonomous cruise control on VW Golf
Intelligent Cruise Control (ICC)
SteeringSwitch (ProPilot)
Nissan Serena

Laser-based systems do not detect and track vehicles in adverse weather conditions nor do they reliably track dirty (and therefore non-reflective) vehicles. Laser-based sensors must be exposed, the sensor (a fairly large black box) is typically found in the lower grille, offset to one side.

Radar-based sensors can be hidden behind plastic fascias; however, the fascias may look different from a vehicle without the feature. For example, Mercedes-Benz packages the radar behind the upper grille in the center and behind a solid plastic panel that has painted slats to simulate the look of the rest of the grille.

Single radar systems are the most common. Systems involving multiple sensors use either two similar hardware sensors like the 2010 Audi A8[40] or the 2010 Volkswagen Touareg,[41] or one central long range radar coupled with two short radar sensors placed on the corners of the vehicle like the BMW 5 and 6 series.[42]

A more recent development is the binocular computer vision system, such as that introduced to the US market in model year 2013 by Subaru. These systems have front-facing video cameras mounted on either side of the rearview mirror and use digital processing to extract depth information from the parallax between the two cameras' views.

Assisting systems

Radar-based ACC is often sold together with a precrash system,[43] which warns the driver and/or provides brake support if there is a high risk of a collision. Also in certain cars, it is incorporated with a lane maintaining system which provides a power steering assist to reduce steering input burden on corners when the cruise control system is activated.

Multi-sensor systems

Systems with multiple sensors can practice sensor fusion to integrate the data to improve safety and/or driving experience. GPS data can inform the system of geographic features such as a freeway offramp. A camera system could notice driver behavior such as brake lights and/or a turn signal. This could allow the following car to interpret a turn signal by an exit as not requiring the following car to slow down, as the leading car will exit.[31] Multi-sensor systems could also take note of traffic signs/signals and not, e.g., violate a red light while following a vehicle that crossed before the signal changed.

Predictive systems

Predictive systems modify vehicle speed based on predictions of other vehicles' behavior. Such systems can make earlier, more moderate adjustments to the predicted behavior, improving safety and passenger comfort. One example is to predict the likelihood of a vehicle in a neighboring lane moving in front of the controlled vehicle. One system predicts a lane change up to five seconds before it occurs.[38]

Regulations and norms

Adaptive cruise control is regulated by European norm ISO 15622 Intelligent transport systems—Adaptive cruise control systems—Performance requirements and test procedures.[44]

According to this standard, an ACC is partial automation of longitudinal vehicle control to reduce the workload of the driver on roads where non-motorized vehicles and pedestrians are prohibited. It does not deal with stationary objects.[45]

According to this standard, ACC includes two classes of systems: the FSRA (full speed range) and the LSRA (limited speed range).[45]

Vehicle models supporting adaptive cruise control

See also: Lane centering § Sample of level 2 automated cars

The three main categories of ACC are:

Make Full speed range ACC Partial cruise control
Models Notes Models Notes
Aftermarket Any Vehicle 1990+ Uses OpenCV with no braking.

Motor Authority Review[46]

Acura RLX (2014+), MDX (2014+), TLX (2015+) 2005 RL, MDX, ZDX, 2016 MDX is 0 mph type, 2016 ILX,[47] RDX[48]
Alfa Romeo Giulia (2016+) Adaptive Cruise Control with Stop & Go[49]
Audi A8, A7 (2010+), A6 (2011+); A7 (2013+), Q7 (2007+), A3 Prestige (2013+), Q5 (2013+), A5 (2016+), A4 (2016+) Adaptive Cruise Control with Stop & Go A3, A4(2008-16, questionable for 2005-07), A5(2007-15), Q5 (2008-12), A6 (questionable for 2004-10), A7, A8 (2002-09) (also uses data from navigation and front camera sensors),[50] Q7
Bentley Continental GT (2009+) Follow-to-Stop option
BMW 3 and 5-series (2007+), 7-series (2009+), X5 (2011+)[51] excl Diesel, i3 (2014+), X3 (2014+) Active Cruise Control with Stop & Go (BMW Option Code S5DFA) Series 7, 5, 6, 3 (2000+), Mini (2014+) Stop & Go/Lane Assist controls steering for up to 30 seconds of hands-off driving. Highway driving only. Available on 3, 5, 6 and 7 models. (BMW Option Code S541A)

Active Cruise Control[52]

Buick Enclave (2018+), Envision (2017+), Regal/Regal Sportback/ Regal TourX (2016+),[53] Lacrosse (2017+) Lacrosse (2014-2016),[54] Regal (2014-2015)
Cadillac XTS, ATS, SRX (2013+), CTS (2014+), ELR, Escalade/Escalade ESV (2015+ Premium trim) Also includes full power automatic braking under 20 mph (32 km/h) (GM Option 'RPO' Code KSG) 2004 XLR, 2005 STS, 2006 DTS (shuts off below 25 mph (40 km/h))
Chevrolet Impala (2014+), Malibu (2016+), Volt (2017+), Traverse (2018+ High Country trim only), Tahoe/Suburban (2017+ Premier trim), Blazer (2019+), Equinox (2019+),[55] Silverado (2020+ LT, LTZ and High Country trims)[56] Adaptive Cruise Control - Advanced with Traffic Jam Assist (GM Option 'RPO' Code KSG) Tahoe/Suburban (2015-2016 LTZ trim), Adaptive Cruise Control - Camera, Disables when the vehicle slows to under 10 mph (16 km/h) (GM Option 'RPO' Code K59)
Chrysler 200c (2015+), 300 (2015+ in S, C, or C Platinum trims), Pacifica & Pacifica Hybrid (2017+ in Touring L Plus or Limited trims) Active Cruise Control with Stop & Go.[57] 2007–2014 300C Laser, for a limited time, now uses a Bosch radar-based system
Citroen C4 Picasso & Grand C4 Picasso (2013-22), C5 Aircross Adaptive Cruise Control with Stop & Go C4 (2004-10), C4 Picasso (2006-13), Berlingo (2018+), C4 Cactus
Dodge Charger (2015+), Challenger (2015+) 2011 Charger, 2011 Durango Radar, by Bosch
Ford Everest (2015+, Trend and Titanium models only),[58] Fusion (2017+), F-150 (2018+), Expedition (2018+), Mustang (2015+, Premium models only), Focus (2018+) Adaptive cruise control with stop-and-go (optional) 2015-2017 F150[59] 2011+Explorer, 2017+ Fiesta, 2013+ Ford FLEX, 2006 Mondeo, 2013 Kuga, 2013-2016 Fusion, S-Max, Galaxy, 2010+ Taurus, 2011+ Edge, 2017+ Super Duty, 2019+ Ranger Disables and does not work or brake under 20 mph (32 km/h); - Radar[60] Adaptive Cruise Control and Collision Warning with Brake Support
GMC Acadia (2017+ Denali), Yukon/Yukon XL (2017+ Denali), Terrain (2019+),[61] Sierra (2020+ SLT, AT4 and Denali) Adaptive Cruise Control - Advanced with Traffic Jam Assist (GM Option 'RPO' Code KSG) Yukon/Yukon XL (2015-2016 Denali) Adaptive Cruise Control - Camera, Disables when the vehicle slows to under 10 mph (16 km/h) (GM Option 'RPO' Code K59)
Honda Accord (2018+),[62] CRV (2017+), Available with Honda Sensing package (2016+) Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) with Low-Speed Follow 2003 Inspire, 2005 Legend, 2013 Accord (USA), 2007 CR-V series III, 2015 Honda CRV, 2016+ Honda Pilot,[63] 2018 Honda Odyssey Adaptive Cruise Control and Collision Mitigating Braking System with Honda Sensing[64]
Hyundai Azera (2016+), Equus (2012+), Genesis (2015+), Sonata (2015+), Santa Fe (2017+), Santa Fe Sport (2017+), Ioniq (2017+), Palisade (2019+), Ioniq 5 (2022+) Genesis (2010+), Elantra (2017+)
Infiniti EX (2010+)*, Q50 (2014+) Older laser based system* 2006 EX, M, Q45, QX56, G35, FX35/45/50, G37 Shuts off below 3 mph, EX: in North America as an option, shuts off below 40 km/h (25 mph)
Jaguar XK8 / XKR (X100) (1999-2006), XK / XKR (X150) (2006-2014), S-Type, XJ, XF
Jeep Cherokee (2014+, Limited and TrailHawk Models), Grand Cherokee (2012+), Wrangler (2018+)[65] Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) - Stop/Start again option on 2017 models but not prior models. 2011–2013 Grand Cherokee (Option on Limited & Overland, standard on Summit) Radar, by Bosch

disengages below 15 mph (24 km/h)[66]

Kia Cadenza (2014+), Sedona (2015+), K900 (2015+), Optima (2016+), Sorento (2016+), Niro (2017+), Telluride (2019+), EV6 (2022+) Advanced Smart Cruise Control (ASCC)
Land Rover Range Rover (L405) (2013+) Range Rover Sport (L320) (2005-2013)

Range Rover (L322) (2010-2012)

Above 20 mph (32 km/h).

Later models (~2010-) can add full speed range by (unofficial) software upgrade.[67]

Discovery 3 and 4 can retrofit L320 system with custom mounting hardware[68]

Lincoln Continental (2017+),[69] MKZ (2017+)[70] Adaptive cruise control with stop-and-go. MKS (2009+), MKT (2010+), MKX (2011+), MKZ (2013+), MKC (2015+) Radar[60] Adaptive Cruise Control and Collision Warning with Brake Support
Lexus LS 460 (2006+), GS hybrid (2013+), NX (2015+), NX hybrid (2015+), GS non-hybrid (2016+), RX (2016+), RX hybrid (2016+), UX (2019+),[71] ES (2019+)[72] Dynamic Radar Cruise Control
LS 460 full ACC not available in US until 2013
 2000 LS430/460 (laser and radar), RX (laser and radar), GS, IS, ES 350, and LX 570 (shuts off below 25 mph (40 km/h))
Mazda CX-5 (2017+), CX-9 (2017+),[73] Mazda3 (2020+), Mazda CX-30 (2020+), Mazda6 (2021+)[74] Mazda Radar Cruise Control with Stop and Go Mazda6 (2014+), Mazda3, CX-5 (2016+) Radar Cruise Control and Forward Obstruction Warning[75]
Mitsubishi Outlander (2014+)
Mercedes-Benz S (2006+), B, E, CLS, CL (2009+); A, CLA, M, G, GL (2013+) Distronic Plus 1998 S, E, CLS, SL, CL, M, GL, CLK, 2012 C Distronic
Nissan Murano (2015+), Maxima (2016+), Altima (2016+), Sentra (2017+), Note (2017+), Leaf (2018+), Titan (2020+) Stops vehicle but resets after 3 seconds, requiring brake application to sit still and setting cruise speed again. 1998 Cima, Primera T-Spec Models Intelligent Cruise Control (ICC)
Peugeot 3008 and 5008 (2017+), 308 (2017+), 508 (2018+), 208 (2019+), 2008 (2019+) Adaptive Cruise Control with Stop & Go 3008 and 5008 (2009-16), Partner (2018+)
Porsche Panamera (2010+); Cayenne (2011+), Cayman (2013+), Boxster(2012+) Porsche Active Safe (PAS), PDK transmission only.
Ram 1500/2500/3500 (2019+) Adaptive Cruise with Stop
SEAT León (2012+), Ateca[76]
Skoda Octavia (2013+), Fabia (2014+), Superb (2014+)
Subaru Legacy, Outback (2013+), Forester (2014+), Impreza (2015+), WRX (2016+), Crosstrek (2016+), Ascent (2019+) 0 mph EyeSight[77][78] Non-Radar Camera System
Suzuki Swift 2017+ Vitara (2015+), Sx4 Scross (2016+) Radar
Tesla Model S (late 2014+), Model X, Model 3, Model Y Traffic-Aware Cruise Control (TACC)[79] with Stop-and-Go
Toyota Prius + Prius Prime (2016+), Camry (2018+), C-HR (2018+), Avalon (2017+), Land Cruiser (2018+), Rav 4 (2019+), Corolla (only Hatchback) (2019), Corolla Sedan (2017+) Toyota Safety Sense P (TSS-P), Corolla Sedan and Hatchback (2020+) Toyota Safety Sense (TSS-P) (on 2017+ Land Cruiser, Avalon and Avalon Hybrid, Prius, Corolla, Prius Prime, RAV4 and RAV4 Hybrid, Highlander and Highlander Hybrid), Toyota Safety Sense (TSS) 2.0 on 2019+ RAV4 and 2020+ Corolla has full speed range. 1997 Celsior, 2004 Sienna (XLE Limited Edition), Avalon, Sequoia (Platinum Edition), Avensis, 2009 Corolla (Japan),[80] 2017+ Corolla,[81] 2010+ Prius, 2013+ Prius v,[82] 2014+ Highlander,[83] 2015+ Camry,[84] 2016+ RAV4[85] Dynamic Laser Cruise Control (DLCC) on 2009+ Sienna XLE Limited, Avalon Limited and Sequoia Platinum shuts off below 25 mph (40 km/h) (US)[86]
Vauxhall / Opel Insignia, Zafira Tourer (on selected variants of SE, SRi, Elite, VXR), Astra
Volkswagen Phaeton (2010+), Passat B8 (2014+), Touareg (2011+), Golf Mk7 (2013+), Polo (2014+), Jetta (2016+ SEL Trim), Tiguan SEL (2018+), ATLAS SEL (2018+) Tiguan SEL and ATLAS SEL (2018+) ACC stop-and-go Passat, Phaeton all generations, Touareg
Volvo All Volvo models 2015+

Starting in 2008 ACC was available as an option on V40, S60,[39] V60, XC60, V70, XC70 and S80

ACC also includes automatic braking. Newest models feature full power auto-brake with pedestrian and cyclist detection.

Mercedes Distronic Plus

Mercedes-Benz S 450 4MATIC Coupe. The forward-facing Distronic sensors are usually placed behind the Mercedes-Benz logo and front grille.

In 1999, Mercedes introduced Distronic, the first radar-assisted adaptive system, on the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W220)[9][87] and the CL-Class.[11] Distronic adjusts the vehicle speed automatically to the car in front in order to always maintain a safe distance to other cars on the road.

In 2005, Mercedes refined the system ("Distronic Plus") making the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221) the first car to receive the upgraded system. Distronic Plus could now completely halt the car if necessary on most sedans. In an episode of Top Gear, Jeremy Clarkson demonstrated the effectiveness of the system by coming to a complete halt from motorway speeds to a round-about and getting out, without touching the pedals.[88]

In 2016, Mercedes introduced Active Brake Assist 4, the first emergency braking assistant with pedestrian recognition.[89]

One crash caused by Distronic Plus dates to 2005, when German news magazine "Stern" was testing Mercedes' original Distronic system. During the test, the system did not always manage to brake in time.[90] Ulrich Mellinghoff, then Head of Safety, NVH, and Testing at the Mercedes-Benz Technology Centre, stated that some tests failed because the vehicle was tested in a metallic hall, which caused problems with radar. Later iterations received an upgraded radar and other sensors, which are not disrupted by a metallic environment.[90][91] In 2008, Mercedes conducted a study comparing the crash rates of Distronic Plus vehicles and vehicles without it, and concluded that those equipped with Distronic Plus have an around 20% lower crash rate.[92]

See also

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External links

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