Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) directly kills about 1,600 people each year in Australia.[1] This is a currently serious threat to both humans and animals in the country.[2] Antimicrobial resistance occurs when a microorganism (i.e. fungi, bacteria, viruses) evolves and gains the ability to become more resistant or completely resistant to the medicine that was previously used to treat it.[3] Drug-resistant bacteria are increasingly difficult to treat, requiring replacement or higher-dose drugs that may be more expensive or more toxic.[4] Resistance can develop through one of the three mechanisms: natural resistant ability in some types of microorganisms, a mutation in genes or receiving the resistance from another species.[5] Antibodies appear naturally due to random mutations, or more often after gradual accumulation over time, and because of abuse of antibiotics.[6] Multidrug-resistance, or MDR, are the microorganisms that are resistant to many types of antimicrobials.[3] "Superbugs" is the term also used for multidrug-resistant microbes, or totally drug-resistant (TDR).[4][3]
In October 2017, the Australian Government reported that the Australians were over-using antibiotic.[7] In 2015, Australian doctors dispensed over 30 million antimicrobial prescriptions via the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) or Repatriation PBS.[7] When antimicrobials are used to kill microbes, a small group of microbes survive.[8] Some, gaining the resistance gene, may still survive and are only weakened. As more antimicrobials of the same type taken, the surviving microorganisms start to gain resistance to it. The misuse of antimicrobials creates a natural selection condition under which those surviving ones have a chance to reproduce and the drug-resistant bacteria are more common.[6] When the recent dose does not affect anymore, it will have to require a higher dose to kill microbes. Over time, the bacteria will become resistant with that particular antimicrobial medication.[6][8]
Genetic Mutation is known as one of the natural causes of Antimicrobial Resistance.[8] Microorganisms can reproduce rapidly by replicating itself every period of time, which allowing them the ability to evolve and adapt to the changes in the environment. Every time a microbe goes into the reproduction process, there is a risk to have random errors in its genetic replication process, called mutation.[10] These mutations can either positively or negatively affect the microbe itself. The genetic mutation could give the microorganism the ability to adapt, become resistant to the antimicrobials which are being used to kill treat the disease.[8][10] The drug-resistant bacteria reproduced and the gene of resistance become dominant and the population becomes resistance to the antimicrobials.[10]
Horizontal Gene Transfer is a process in which the microorganisms are able to share their gene with each other.[8][11] The known result for gene transfer is genetic variation and it could be a serious problem when they are also able to transfer the drug-resistance genes to each other.[8] Bacteria are able to share genetic information with each other via three mechanisms: conjugation, transduction and transformation.[12]
The effect of antimicrobials on microbes is disrupting the internal structures of the bacteria to stops them from reproducing or to kill them.[12][13] The microbes can gain resistance to the drugs by changing the structures to prevent their actions.[12]
Microorganisms can resist antimicrobials by preventing the drug from reaching its target.[12] Microbes can push away the antimicrobials out of the cell's body by creating pumps placed in the membrane, called efflux pumps.[12] These efflux pumps transport nutrient molecules in and out the cell and can be used to pump the antimicrobials out of the microbe.[13] Another mechanism to withstand the action of antimicrobials is reducing the cell membrane's permeability, preventing the drug get through the cell membrane.[12] The enzyme, β-lactamase, in some drug-resistant bacteria, has the ability to break down the active component in the penicillins.[12][13] Bacteria can sometimes complicatedly modify the structure and components of the antimicrobials by producing enzymes so the antimicrobials can no longer interact with the microbe cell.[12] These enzymes may have the ability to add different chemical groups to the antimicrobials.[citation needed]
A microbe can modify its target by changing the composition or the structure, adding different chemical components to prevent the drug from reaching its target.[12] Some bacteria can produce an alternative protein which can replace the original proteins inhibited by the antibiotic.[12] Some bacteria can also reprogram its target by forming a different variant of a needed structure so the antibiotics cannot have action on it.[12]
The Australian Department of Health and Department of Agriculture and Water Resources had worked together and released the first National Antimicrobial Resistance Strategy 2015-2019 (the Strategy) in June 2015.[14] The Australian Government proposed the main strategies to respond to the threat of antimicrobial resistance, minimise its rapid development and control its spread.[15] The strategy of the Australian Government on AMR aligned with the World Health Organisation (WHO) Global Action Plan and provided the objectives for Australia's nation across the human health, animal health, agriculture and food sectors: