Exercise Balikatan is the most prominent annual military exercise between the Philippines and the United States. The Tagalog word balikatan means "shoulder-to-shoulder".^[1] The exercises have been the cornerstone of Philippines–United States military relations since the closure of U.S. bases in the Philippines.^[2]

Australian armed forces have participated in Balikatan exercises annually since 2014.^[3] Australia has a visiting forces agreement, a type of a status of forces agreement, with the Philippines called Philippines–Australia Status of Visiting Forces Agreement.^[3] The Philippines is open to other allied countries participating, provided that they too have a similar forces agreement.^[3]

Background

The U.S. acquired the Philippines after the Spanish–American War of 1898 and the subsequent Philippine–American War. The United States granted the Philippines independence in 1946.^[4] In 1951, the governments of the United States and the Philippines signed the Mutual Defense Treaty to "strengthen the fabric of peace" in the Pacific by agreeing to defend each other's territory in the case of external attack.^[5] In line with this treaty, the United States maintained until 1992 several military bases in the Philippines, including U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay and the Clark Air Base.

In 1998, following the bases' closure, the Visiting Forces Agreement (Philippines – United States) (VFA) was signed which contained guidelines for the conduct and protection of American troops visiting the Philippines, and stipulated the terms and conditions for the American military to enter Philippine territory. The VFA is a reciprocal agreement in that also outlines the requirements for Philippine troops visiting the United States.^[6]

The Visiting Forces Agreement led to the establishment of the Balikatan exercises, as well as a variety of other cooperative measures.^[7]

Operations

The Balikatan exercises are designed to maintain and develop the security relationship between the two countries' armed forces through crisis-action planning, through enhanced training to conduct counterterrorism operations, and through promoting interoperability of the forces.^[8]

Over the years the exercises have expanded to include surrounding other countries in Southeast Asia. The training has had a shifting focus. During the U.S.-led "War on Terror" the annual Balikatan Exercises focused on training for counterterrorism missions.^[8] There were student protests in the early 2010s over the continued presence of U.S. troops in the Philippines.^[9]

These military exercises contribute directly to the Philippine armed forces' efforts to root out Abu Sayyaf and Jemaah Islamiyah and bring development to formerly insurgent-held areas, notably Basilan and Jolo. They include combined military training and civil-military operations and humanitarian projects. The International Military Education and Training (IMET) program is the largest in the Pacific and the third-largest in the world. A Mutual Logistics Support Agreement (MLSA) was signed in November 2002.^{[citation needed]}

Notable exercise years

Balikatan 2022

The 2022 Balikatan exercise brought together over 5,100 US military personnel and 3,800 Filipino soldiers for training in maritime security, amphibious operations, live-fire training, urban operations, aviation operations, counterterrorism, humanitarian assistance, and disaster relief in various parts of Luzon from March 28 to April 8, 2022. The exercise included a command post exercise that tests the AFP and U.S. forces’ ability to plan, command, and communicate with each other in a simulated environment.  This training bolsters the collective security and defensive capabilities of the alliance. Renovation of elementary schools, community health initiatives, and the exchange of advanced emergency rescue and lifesaving techniques were among the collaborative efforts.^[10]

The 2022 iteration was considered a return of sorts,^[11] since the 2021 iteration was relatively small, and the 2020 iteration had been cancelled altogether after President Rodrigo Duterte temporarily ended the Philippines’ Visiting Forces Agreement (VFA) with the United States^[12] in what was seen as an effort to pursue warmer ties with China.^[13]

Balikatan 2023

Set against the political backdrop of increasing tensions regarding Taiwan and in the West Philippine Sea,^[14] as well as the first year of the Presidency of Bongbong Marcos in the Philippines, the 2023 iteration of the Balikatan exercise was marked by further expansion, with more than 17,600 participants making it the largest Balikatan to that date. It involved four major events - the Command Post Exercise, Cyber Defense Exercise, Field Training Exercise, and Humanitarian Civic Assistance (HCA). It also included a Sink Exercise (SINKEX) as part of the littoral live fire exercise held in Zambales, where the former BRP Pangasinan (PS-31), a decommissioned Malvar-class corvette, was used as a target ship.^[15] The 2023 exercise also marked the first time the M-142 High Mobility Artillery Rocket System (HIMARS) platform was used in live-fire exercises, which had not been done in the 2016 and 2022 exercises.^[16]