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((EngvarB|date=October 2013))
((Use dmy dates|date=May 2023))
'''Banyamulenge''' is a community from the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]'s [[South Kivu]] province. The Banyamulenge are culturally and socially distinct from the Tutsi of [[North Kivu]], with most speaking ''Kinyamulenge'', a mix of [[Kinyarwanda]] (official language of [[Rwanda]]), [[Kirundi]] (spoken primarily in [[Burundi]]),<ref name="Lemarchand10" /> [[Ha language]] (spoken by Ha people, one of the largest ethnic groups in ethnically diverse Tanzania), and Swahili. Banyamulenge are often discriminated against in the DRC due to their Tutsi phenotype, similar to that of people living in the [[Horn of Africa]], their insubordination towards colonial rule, their role in [[Mobutu]]'s war against and victory over the [[Simba Rebellion]], which was supported by the majority of other tribes in [[South Kivu]], their role during the [[First Congo War]] and subsequent regional conflicts ([[Rally for Congolese Democracy–Goma]], [[Movement for the Liberation of the Congo]], [[National Congress for the Defence of the People]], and more importantly for the fact that two of the most influential presidents of their country declared them as enemy of the State both in 1996 ([[Mobutu Sese Seko]]) and 1998 ([[Laurent-Désiré Kabila]]).

The contentious political and social position of the Banyamulenge has been a point of controversy in the country, having played a key role in tensions against the [[Simba Rebellion]] of 1963–1965, [[First Congo War]] of 1996–1997, [[Second Congo War]] of 1998–2003, and [[Joseph Kabila]]'s regime of 2001–2019. The wars in the DRC have affected more than 10 million lives, with casualties continuing in Ituri, North Kivu, South Kivu, and Tanganyika provinces.

In the late 1990s, political scientist [[René Lemarchand]] stated that the main ethnic groups claimed the Banyamulenge numbered around 50,000 to 70,000.<ref name="Lemarchand10">Lemarchand, 10</ref> [[Gérard Prunier]] quotes around 60,000–80,000, a figure of about 3–4 percent of the total provincial population.<ref name="Prunier51-52" /><ref>Lemarchand states the figure of 400,000 given by Joseph Mutambo [''Les Banyamulenges'', (Limete: L'imprimerie Médiaspaul de Kinshasa, 1997), 26 ((in lang|fr))] is "grossly exaggerated". Lemarchand, 10</ref> Lemarchand notes that the group represents "a rather unique case of [[ethnogenesis]]".

== Etymology ==
''Mulenge'' is a term historically referring to mountains concentrated on the High Plateau of [[South Kivu]], in the eastern region of the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], close to the [[Burundi]]-Congo-[[Rwanda]] border. The term translates literally as "people of [[Mulenge]]", a ''groupement'' on the [[Itombwe Mountains|Itombwe plateau]].<ref name=Mamdani248-249>Mamdani, 248–249</ref> The name was chosen in the early 1970s to avoid being called "Banyarwanda" and seen as foreigners in what was then [[Zaire]].<ref name=Prunier52/> In 1976, the word "Banyamulenge" first came into wide usage after [[Gisaro Muhazo]], a South Kivutian minister of parliament, began an initiative to reclassify the Banyamulenge of Mwenga, Fizi, and Uvira into a single administrative entity. Muhazo's attempt failed, but the term he introduced remained. Over decades, it became used as a catchall label for the Kivutian Tutsi.<ref name=Lemarchand10/>

== Origins and early political status ==
((multiple image| align = right| total_width = 300| image1 = Watusi Prince 2, Belgian Congo.jpg| width1 = 290 | height1 = 900| link1 = | caption1 = Watusi princes of the [[Belgian Congo]]| image2 = Watusi Prince, Belgian Congo.jpg| width2 = 290 | height2 = 900| link2 = | caption2  = ))

While the Banyarwanda/Banyamulenge may have migrated in the 17th century from Rwanda, Burundi and the Karagwa area of Tanzania;<ref>Historian [[Alexis Kagame]] claims that soldiers under ''[[King of Rwanda|Mwami]]'' [[Kigeli II of Rwanda]] (1648–1672) settled across the [[Ruzizi River]], but Prunier asserts that "Kagame has a tendency to exaggerate the power of the old Rwanda kingdom." Prunier, 51 & 381</ref> other sources suggest some early Banyamulenge came to the area in the 18th-century, fleeing the rule of Rwabugiri in Rwanda.<ref>Gerard Prunier. ''Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe''. p. 51</ref>

Another significant recorded influx of Banyarwanda into South Kivu is dated to the 1880s.<ref name=Prunier51>Prunier, 51</ref><ref>Lemarchand notes that the pre-colonial arrival of the Tutsi in the Kivus is generally agreed to among historians, but is "vehemently contested, however, by many Congolese intellectuals." Lemarchand, 10.</ref> Two reasons are given for their migration: the migrants were composed of Tutsi trying to avoid the increasingly high taxes imposed by ''[[King of Rwanda|Mwami]]'' [[Kigeli IV of Rwanda|Rwabugiri]] of the [[Kingdom of Rwanda]].  Secondly, the group was fleeing the violent war of succession that erupted in 1895 after the death of Rwabugiri.<ref name=Mamdani250>Mamdani, 250</ref> This group was mostly Tutsi and their Hutu ''abagaragu'' (clients), who had been ''icyihuture'' (turned Tutsi), which negated interethnic tension. They settled above the Ruzizi Plain on the [[Itombwe Plateau]].  The plateau, which reached an altitude of 3000 meters, could not support large-scale agriculture, but allowed cattle grazing.<ref name=Prunier51/>

[[Banyarwanda]] migrants continued to arrive, particularly as labour migrants during the colonial period. The [[Union Minière du Haut Katanga]] recruited more than 7000 workers from 1925 to 1929. From the 1930s, [[Congolese Banyarwanda]] immigrants continued coming in search of work, with a major influx of Tutsi [[refugee]]s in 1959–1960 following the "Social Revolution" led by Hutu [[Grégoire Kayibanda]]. While the early migrants lived primarily as pastoralists in the high plains, colonial labour migrants moved to urban areas. Refugees were placed in [[refugee camp]]s.<ref>Mamdani, 247–248</ref> In 1924, the pastoralists received permission from colonial authorities to occupy a high plateau further south.<ref name=Mamdani250/>

The groups received further immigrants during the anti-Tutsi persecutions in 1964 and 1973.<ref name=Prunier51-52>Prunier, 51–52</ref> Many Banyamulenge initially joined the [[Simba Rebellion]] of 1964–5, but switched sides when rebels, fleeing [[Jean Schramme]]'s mercenaries and government troops, came onto the plateau and began killing the Banyarwanda's cattle for food. The Tutsi rose up, accepting weapons from the pro-[[Mobutu Sese Seko|Mobutu]] forces and assisting in the defeat of the remaining rebels. Because many of the rebels killed were from the neighbouring [[Bembe people]], this incident created a lasting source of intra-group tension.<ref name=Prunier51-52/> The government rewarded the Banyamulenge efforts on its behalf by appointing individuals to high positions in the capital Bukavu, while their children were increasingly sent to [[missionary]] schools. Starting at this time, Lemarchand asserts, "From a rural, isolated, backward community, the Banyamulenge would soon become increasingly aware of themselves as a political force."<ref name=Lemarchand10/>

After the war, the group took advantage of a favourable political environment to expand their territory. Some moved south towards [[Moba port]] and [[Kalemi]], while others moved onto the Ruzizi plain, where a few became chiefs among the Barundi through gifts of cattle. Still others went to work in the [[Bukavu]], the provincial capital, or [[Uvira]], a town experiencing a [[gold rush]] economic boom. These urban dwellers could make a fair living selling meat and milk from their herds to the gold diggers, though the group lacked the political connections to Kinshasa and the large educated class which was possessed by the North Kivu Banyarwanda.<ref name=Prunier52>Prunier, 52</ref>

The pastoralists were located within three ''territoires'': [[Mwenga]], inhabited by the [[Lega people]]; [[Fizi]] of the Bembe people, the Babwari people and the Banyindu people; and Uvira, inhabited by the [[Vira people]], [[Furiiru people|Bafuliro]] and Barundi.<ref>Mamdani, 248</ref> Ethnic tensions against the Tutsi rose following the end of the colonial period, as well as during the [[Ikiza|1972 mass killing of Hutu in Burundi]].  In response the Tutsi appear to have attempted to distance themselves from their ethnicity as Rwandans and lay claim to a territorial identity as residents of Mulenge.  As they moved, they continued this practice. Some Tutsi Banyarwanda in South Kivu call themselves the '''Banya-[[tulambo]]''' and '''Banya-[[minembwe]]''', after the places they were located.<ref name=Mamdani248-249/>

== Political tensions (1971–1992) ==
After 1971, such practices became increasingly controversial. The [[Democratic Republic of the Congo nationality law#1965–1997|1971 Citizenship Decree]] by President [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] granted citizenship to the Banyarwanda who had arrived as refugees from 1959 to 1963. However, some leaders, such as Chief of Staff [[Barthélémy Bisengimana]], were concerned that this change was an alarming sign of the growing influence of the Banyarwanda in the administration.<ref name=Mamdani252>Mamdani, 252</ref>

In reaction to the apparently growing influence of the Banyamulenge, the majority ethnicities, particularly the [[Nande]] and [[Hunde]] of North Kivu, focused on dominating the 1977 legislative elections.  Once accomplished, they passed the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo nationality law#1965–1997|1981 Citizenship Bill]], stating that only people who could prove descent from someone resident in Congo in 1885 would qualify for citizenship. From the perspective of the so-called "indigenous ethnicities", such as the Babembe, [[Furiiru people|Bafuliro]], the name "Banyamulenge" was a claim to indigeneity in Mulenge.

However, the bill proved difficult to implement by the time of the 1985 provincial assembly elections, so the so-called "indigenous Kivutian majority" came up with an ''ad hoc'' measure: Banyarwanda (including Banyamulenge and Tutsi from North Kivu) were allowed to vote in elections, but not to run for political office. This appeared to aggravate the situation, as those Banyarwanda who qualified as citizens under the 1981 law still found their political rights curtailed. Some so-called Banyarwanda, particularly Banyamulenge, smashed ballot boxes in protest.<ref>Mamdani, 243–245</ref> Others formed Umoja, an organization of all Congolese Banyarwanda. However, in 1988, the increasing tensions within the Banyarwanda community of North Kivu led to the division of the organization into Tutsi and Hutu groups in North Kivu due to the fact that Hutus held power in Rwanda.<ref name=Mamdani252/>

The 1991 [[Sovereign National Conference]] (CNS) was a sign of the increasing coherence of the anti-Mobutu forces,<ref>((cite news |last= Noble |first= Kenneth  |date= 1991-06-25 |title= Congo Political Conference Gives Africa a Democratic Model |url= https://www.nytimes.com/1991/06/25/world/congo-political-conference-gives-africa-a-democratic-model.html |work= The New York Times  |access-date= 2022-02-26))</ref> and came as the Congolese Banyarwanda were in a state of heightened tension. Following the beginning of the [[Rwandan Civil War]] in 1990, many young Tutsi men in Kivu crossed the border to join the Tutsi-dominated rebel [[Rwandan Patriotic Front]] (RPF) in its fight against the Hutu-dominated Rwandan government. In response, the Mobutu government implemented [[Mission d'Identification de Zaïrois au Kivu]] to identify non-Zairean Banyarwanda, using the end of the [[Berlin Conference]] as the division point. Many Banyarwanda whose families had come as colonial labourers were classified as aliens, resulting in yet more youth joining the RPF. The overall effect of the CNS was to strengthen the tendency of "indigenous" Congolese to differentiate Tutsi from Hutu, and lump together all Tutsi Banyarwanda as "Banyamulenge". It also underlined the fragility of their political position to the Banyamulenge. Within the Banyarwanda in the Kivus, the Hutu began defining themselves as "indigenous" in comparison to the Tutsis, who were increasingly seen as owing their allegiance to the foreign groups.<ref>Mamdani, 245–247</ref>

== Conflict (1993–1998) ==
In 1993, the issue of land and indigenous claims in the Kivus erupted into bloody conflict.  Hutu, and some Tutsi, landlords began buying the lands of poor Hutu and [[Bahunde]] of the [[Wanyanga]] [[chiefdom]] in [[Masisi]], North Kivu.  After being displaced, one thousand people went to [[Walikale]], demanding the right to elect their own [[ethnic]] leaders.  The Banyanga, insisting that only "indigenous people" could claim this customary right, began fighting with the Hutu.

The one thousand returned to Masisi, where the Hutu landlords, and [[Banyarwanda]] in general, supported the claim of Banyarwanda to "indigenous" rights.  The government sent in the [[Division Spéciale Présidentielle]] (DSP) and Guard Civile to restore order.  Ill-supplied, the security forces were forced to live off the local population: the DSP off the rich Hutu and the Guard Civile off the Bahunde and ordinary Hutu.  The DSP appeared to be protecting the rights of the "non-indigenous" (primarily Hutu) against the "indigenous" (primarily Bahunde), sparking outrage and increasing the scope of the conflict.  One estimate is that between 10,000 and 20,000 people were killed; another 200,000 people were forced to flee their homes.<ref>Mamdani, pp. 252–253</ref>

In late 1993, about 50,000 Burundian refugees from the [[Burundi Civil War]] began streaming into primarily South Kivu. They were followed the next year by almost one million mostly Hutu refugees from the [[Rwandan genocide]], creating the [[Great Lakes refugee crisis]].  The Hutu government responsible for the genocide came with the refugees; they turned the camps into armed bases from which they could launch attacks against the newly victorious RPF government in Rwanda.  The influx of refugees dramatically changed the situation of the Banyamulenge.

The Congolese Tutsi in North Kivu were threatened by the new armed Hutu camps, while the newly established Tutsi government in Rwanda gave them a safe place to go. Their peril was underlined by a commission led by [[Mambweni Vangu]], who declared that all Banyarwanda were refugees and must return to Rwanda.  In April 1995, [[Anzuluni Mbembe]], the co-speaker of the Parliament of Congo, signed a resolution stating that all Banyamulenge were recent refugees (regardless of how long they had lived in the Congo) and providing a list of Banyamulenge who would be expelled from the country. Between March and May 1996, the remaining Tutsi in Masisi and [[Rutshuru]] were identified and expelled into refugee camps in [[Gisenyi]]. The Bahunde, forced out by the Hutu, also took refuge there.<ref>Mamdani, 253–255</ref>

The situation in South Kivu took longer to develop.  Once the 1994 refugees arrived, local authorities began appropriating Banyamulenge-owned property in the valley with the support of Mbembe.  Threatened by both the armed Hutus to the north and a Congolese army appropriating property and land, the Banyamulenge of South Kivu sought cross-border training and supply of arms from the RPF.  As threats proliferated, each Native Authority formed its own militia.  Finally, in November 1996, the RPF-backed [[Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo]] (AFDL), which the Banyamulenge militias joined, crossed the border and dismantled the camps, before continuing on to [[Kinshasa]] and overthrowing Mobutu.<ref name=Mamdani255-9>Mamdani, 255–259</ref> The ranks of the AFDL were composed in large part by Banyamulenge, who filled most of the administrative positions in South Kivu after the fall of Bukavu.<ref>Lemarchand, 10–11</ref>

As documented in the [[DRC Mapping Exercise Report]] by the [[United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights]], the success of the invasion led to revenge killings by the Tutsi Banyarwanda against their opponents.  Perhaps six thousand Hutu were purged in the week following the AFDL capture of the town.<ref name=Mamdani255-9/> It was worse in South Kivu, as Banyamulenge settled local scores and RPF soldiers appeared to conflate the ''génocidaires'' with the Hutu with the "indigenous" Congolese.  One intellectual in Bukavu who was otherwise sympathetic to the Banyamulenge claim to citizenship stated:
<blockquote>The Banyamulenge conquered their rights by arms but the rift between them and the local population has grown.  The attitude of the Tutsi soldiers—during and after the war has made them more detested by the population due to the killings, torture.  For example, they will go into the village, raid all the cattle, tell the population—since when have you learned to keep cattle; we are cattle; we know cattle.  In Bukavu, they went into and stole from houses.  Not so much in Goma.  The result is the population is increasingly getting concerned over the question of the Tutsi presence.<ref>Mamdani, 259–260</ref></blockquote>

== Second Congo War (1998–2003) ==
[[File:Kivu road.jpg|thumb|Mixed group of Banyamulenge and [[Bafuliru]] repairing a road between [[Lemera]] and Mulenge, [[South Kivu]], ca. 2003]]
The situation became more polarised with the beginning of the [[Second Congo War]] in 1998.  Those who had carried out the massacres of Hutu became part of the ruling military forces in the Kivus.  Meanwhile, the Congolese government of [[Laurent Kabila]] urged the "indigenous" population to fight not only the invading RPA ( Rwandan Patriotic Army ), but also the Congolese Tutsi civilians, the mostly affected being Banyamulenge.  Matching actions to words, Kabila armed "indigenous" militias [[Mai-Mai]] and Congolese Hutu militias, as well as the Génocidaires (those who carried out mass killings during and after the 1994 Rwandan Genocide, in which close to a million Rwandans, primarily Tutsis, were murdered by their Hutu neighbors.) in response to the RPF's supplying arms to the Banyamulenge.<ref>Mamdani, 260–261</ref> The two Mai-Mai groups most active against the Banyamulenge were the [[Babembe]] and [[Balega]] militias.((Citation needed|date=May 2007))

The various Banyamulenge militias and the Rwandan government forces became separate because of disagreements over motives of the uprising after the creation of RCD-Goma.  In early 2002, extensive fighting took place on the high plateau of South Kivu after Commandant [[Patrick Masunzu]], then a Tutsi officer in the Rwandan-backed [[Rally for Congolese Democracy-Goma]] (RCD-Goma) rebel movement, gathered Banyamulenge support in an uprising against the RCD-Goma leadership.<ref>[http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,IRBC,,COD,456d621e2,45f1471119,0.html Responses to Information Requests (RIRs): "Current treatment of the Banyamulenge people in the Democratic Republic of Congo"]  ((webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010023900/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country%2C%2CIRBC%2C%2CCOD%2C456d621e2%2C45f1471119%2C0.html |date=10 October 2012 )), Research Directorate of the [[Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada]], UN High Commission on Refugees, June 2003</ref>

By 2000, the Banyamulenge were hemmed into the high plateau by Congolese Mai-Mai, the Burundian [[National Council for the Defense of Democracy-Forces for the Defense of Democracy|Forces for the Defense of Democracy]], and the Rwandan Hutu [[Armée de Libération du Rwanda]] (ALiR).  They were unable to carry out basic economic activities without the security provided through the RCD-Goma.  Numerous families fled to the relative safety of the Burundian capital of [[Bujumbura]].  Nevertheless, Banyamulenge made up much of the RCD military wing, the Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC), and controlled the towns of Fizi, Uvira, and Minembwe, which was recently declared a "commune" among many others in 2018.((Citation needed|date=May 2007))

In August 2004, 166 Banyamulenge refugees were massacred at a refugee camp in [[Gatumba]], Burundi by a force composed mostly of [[National Liberation Front (of Burundi)|National Liberation Front]] rebels.<ref>See ((cite web|url= http://hrw.org/backgrounder/africa/burundi/2004/0904/burundi0904.pdf |title=Burundi: The Gatumba Massacre – War Crimes and Political Agendas ))&nbsp;((small|(297&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]))), [[Human Rights Watch]] Briefing Paper, September 2004</ref> Vice-president [[Azarias Ruberwa]], a Munyamulenge, suspended his participation in the transitional government for one week in protest, before being persuaded to return to Kinshasa by South African pressure.((Citation needed|date=May 2007))

== M-23 War and present (2012–2019) ==
((More citations needed section|date=January 2020))
The majority of Banyamulenge were opposed to the [[M23 rebellion|M-23 Rebel Movement]], largely because it was supported by Rwanda. Despite the fact that the majority of Banyamulenge opposed Rwanda's support of the rebellious M-23 led by Banyamasisi, many Banyamulenge residing in Rwanda as refugees or Rwandan citizens benefitted from the government of Rwanda. Some of them occupy government posts and others can be found in lucrative private sectors while others seek residence as refugees and benefit from the US government resettlement program to relocate to the United States (which has a flourishing Banyamulenge diaspora). In DRC, the Banyamulenge have been part of the elite community in politics and the military while benefiting from Kabila himself, even though hated by some members of his inner circle. This has led to increased tensions with local communities all over the country who argue they receive government preferential treatment they do not deserve. This view is largely held by other tribes in South Kivu who have always maintained that they are more Rwandan than they are Congolese. It remains a question of interest as to how they will be treated by the [[Félix Tshisekedi]] regime, as they have, in one way or the other, been fairly treated and protected under the leadership of Joseph Kabila. Congolese identify themselves based on their territories. For example, Bembe or Lega tribe identify themselves based on the following territories including Itombwe, Lulenge, Ngandja, Tanganyika and M'tambala. In each territories the land occupants are well-known regardless of its inhabitancy. Though some part of [[Sud-Kivu District|Sud Kivu]] is inhabited, the dwellers of the land know well their territories and which land belonging to which tribe. In recent years, tensions over the identity of the Banyamulenge and their claims to a newly established district/"commune" (Minembwe) have created a new cycle of regional political and military disagreements which have led to new ethnic clashes, and involved foreign armed groups.

In late 2019, due to rising ethnic tensions in South Kivu, several high-ranking national political and military leaders journeyed to [[Minembwe]] as an attempt to appease ethnic tensions in the region. In the diaspora, especially in North America and European Union, a movement protesting against violence towards Banyamulenge was created using social media. International broadcasting channels reported on several demonstrations in the United States and Canada. Despite all this violence, Banyamulenge have resorted to peaceful strategies to resolve these problems. On 6 January, the Banyamulenge community endorsed a judicial inquiry/mission to investigate and bring to justice those responsible for crimes committed in Minembwe.

In 2020, the World Youth Alliance warned that the Banyamulenge (Tutsis) people of the Democratic Republic of the Congo "are facing another wave of inhumane emotional and psychological terror and being subjected to genocidal acts of violence. A coalition of local militias has been carrying out killings of Banyamulenge people who have been in a dire humanitarian situation in the central African region for years. In addition, popular politicians, both in the provinces and the capital city Kinshasa have started campaigns whose main goal is to demonize Tutsis, the Banyamulenge community in particular, by denying their inalienable right to Congolese [[Indigenous peoples|autochthony]] and scapegoating them for the woes that the country has been through since the 1990s."


==See also==
* [[Banyarwanda]]

== Notes and references ==
((reflist))

== References ==
* ((cite book|last=Lemarchand|first=René|author-link=René Lemarchand|year=2009|title=The Dynamics of Violence in Central Africa|publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]]|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-8122-4120-4))
*((cite book|last=Mamdani|first=Mahmoud|author-link=Mahmoud Mamdani|year=2001|title=When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|location=Princeton, NJ|isbn=0-691-05821-0|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/whenvictimsbecom00mamd))
*((cite book|last=Prunier|first=Gérard|author-link=Gérard Prunier|year=2009|title=Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe|url=https://archive.org/details/africasworldwarc0000prun|url-access=registration|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-537420-9))
* Ruhimbika, Manassé (Müller). – Les Banyamulenge (Congo-Zaïre) entre deux guerres (préface de B. Jewsiewicki)
Paris, L’Harmattan, 2001, 299 p.

== Further reading ==
* Hiernaux, J. "Note sur les Tutsi de l'Itombwe," ''Bulletin et Mémoires de la société d'anthropologie de Paris 7'', series 11 (1965) ((in lang|fr))
* Vlassenroot, Koen. "Citizenship, Identity Formation & Conflict in South Kivu: The Case of the Banyamulenge", in ''Review of African Political Economy'' – Vol. 29 No. 93/94, (Sep/Dec 2002), pp 499–515
* Weis, G. ''Le pays d'Uvira'' (Brussels: ASRC, 1959) ((in lang|fr))
* Willame, J.C. ''Banyarwanda et Banyamulenge: Violences ethniques et gestion de l'identitaire au Kivu'', Brussels: CEDAF, 1997. ((in lang|fr))
* ((cite book |last1=Huening |first1=Lars-Christopher |title=No Mistaken Identity: Kinshasa's Press and the Rwandophone 'Other' (c. 1990-2005) |date=2015 |publisher=LIT Verlag |location=Zürich |isbn=9783643906434))
((Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda relations))((Armed groups in the Congo wars))
((authority control))

[[Category:Tutsi people]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda relations]]

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