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((Short description|Political administration and regulation of the life of species and a locality's populations))
((Use dmy dates|date=November 2018))

((distinguish|Biocontrol))
'''Biopolitics''' refers to the political relations between the administration of life and a locality's populations, where politics and law evaluate life based on perceived constants and traits. French philosopher [[Michel Foucault]], who wrote about and gave lectures dedicated to his theory of biopolitics, wrote that it is "to ensure, sustain, and multiply life, to put this life in order."<ref>((Cite book|last=Foucault|first=Michel|year=1976|url=http://criticallegalthinking.com/2017/05/10/michel-foucault-biopolitics-biopower/#fn-22546-9|title=History of Sexuality (The Will to Knowledge: History of Sexuality)))</ref>

== Notions of biopolitics ==
Previous notions of the concept can be traced back to the [[Middle Ages]] in [[John of Salisbury]]'s work ''[[Policraticus]]'', in which the term [[body politic]] was coined and used. The term ''biopolitics'' was first used by [[Rudolf Kjellén]], a political scientist who also coined the term [[geopolitics]],<ref name="Esposito2008">((cite book|author=Roberto Esposito|author-link=Roberto Esposito|title=Bios: Biopolitics and Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FIZS2GpUzGwC&pg=PA16|year=2008|publisher=U of Minnesota Press|isbn=978-0-8166-4989-1|page=16))</ref> in his 1905 two-volume work ''The Great Powers''.<ref>((Cite journal|last=Gunneflo|first=Markus|year=2015|url=https://lup.lub.lu.se/search/publication/014e3f7b-0a6b-4535-8e83-d04a04d2008c|title=Rudolf Kjellén: Nordic biopolitics before the welfare state|journal=[[Retfærd]]|volume=35|issue=3|issn=0105-1121))</ref> Kjellén used the term in the context of his aim to study "the civil war between social groups" (comprising the state) from a biological perspective, and thus named his putative discipline "biopolitics".<ref name="Lemke2011">((cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cRVNFqFPGtoC&pg=PA9|title=Biopolitics: An Advanced Introduction|author=Thomas Lemke|author-link=Thomas Lemke (sociologist)|publisher=NYU Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-8147-5241-8|pages=9–10))</ref> In Kjellén's [[organicism|organicist]] view, the [[State (polity)|state]] was a quasi-biological organism, a "super-individual creature." The [[Nazi]]s also subsequently used the term in the context of their [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany|racial policy]], with [[Hans Conrad Julius Reiter|Hans Reiter]] using it in a 1934 speech to refer to their concept of nation and state based on racial supremacy.<ref name="Liesen" />

In contemporary US [[political science]] studies, usage of the term is mostly divided between a [[Post-structuralism|poststructuralist]] group using the meaning assigned by Foucault (denoting social and political power over life) and another group that uses it to denote studies relating [[biology and political science]].<ref name="Liesen">Liesen, Laurette T. and Walsh, Mary Barbara, The Competing Meanings of 'Biopolitics' in Political Science: Biological and Post-Modern Approaches to Politics (2011). APSA 2011 Annual Meeting Paper ((ssrn|1902949))</ref> In the work of Foucault, biopolitics refers to the style of [[government]] that regulates [[population]]s through "[[biopower]]" (the application and impact of [[political power]] on all aspects of human [[life]]).<ref>((cite book |author=Foucault |first=Michel |title=Religion and culture: Michel Foucault |year=1999 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=0-415-92362-X |editor-last=Carrette |editor-first=Jeremy R.))</ref><ref>Michel Foucault: ''Security, Territory, Population'', p. 1 (2007)</ref>

[[Morley Roberts]], in his 1938 book ''Bio-politics'' argued that a correct model for [[Geopolitics|world politics]] is "a loose association of cell and protozoa colonies".<ref name="Liesen" /> [[Robert E. Kuttner]] used the term to refer to his particular brand of "scientific racism," as he called it, which he worked out with noted antisemite [[Eustace Mullins]], with whom Kuttner co-founded the [[Institute for Biopolitics]] in the late 1950s, and also with [[Glayde Whitney]], a behavioral geneticist. Most of his opponents label his model as antisemitic. Kuttner and Mullins were inspired by [[Morley Roberts]], who was in turn inspired by [[Arthur Keith]], or both were inspired by each other and either co-wrote together (or with the Institute of Biopolitics) ''Biopolitics of Organic Materialism'' dedicated to Roberts and reprinted some of his works.<ref name="Jackson2005">((cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cYPSiy7Ns1sC|title=Science for Segregation: Race, Law, and the Case against Brown v. Board of Education|author=John P. Jackson Jr.|date=1 August 2005|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=978-0-8147-4382-9|pages=63–64))</ref>

In the work of [[Michael Hardt]] and [[Antonio Negri]], biopolitics is framed in terms of [[Anti-capitalism|anti-capitalist]] insurrection using life and the body as weapons; examples include flight from power and, "in its most tragic and revolting form", [[suicide terrorism]], conceptualized as the opposite of biopower, which is seen as the practice of sovereignty in biopolitical conditions.<ref>Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri (2005). ''[[Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire]]''. Hamish Hamilton.</ref>

According to Professor [[Agni Vlavianos Arvanitis]],<ref>Global Marshall Plan Foundation "Towards a World in Balance: A Virtual Congress for a Better Balanced World", pg. 169. ((ISBN|3-9809723-7-2))</ref><ref>John L. Pellam Bibliotheque: Worldwide International Publishers (2011) "The Preeminent 500: 500 Exceptional Individuals of Achievement in Commerce Science & Technology, Medicine and the Arts & Letters" pg. 53. ((OCLC|779830043))</ref><ref>John L. Pellam Bibliotheque: Worldwide International Publishers "Encyclopedia Intelligentsia A Compendium of Great Thinkers and Bright Minds of the 21st Century", pg. 43. ((ISBN|978-1-882292-39-4))</ref> biopolitics is a conceptual and operative framework for societal development, promoting ''bios'' (Greek for "life") as the central theme in every human endeavor, be it policy, education, art, government, science or technology. This concept uses bios as a term referring to all forms of life on our planet, including their genetic and geographic variation.<ref>UNESCO Eolss Publishers Co. Ltd, (2001) Our Fragile World: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Development Vol. 1, Pg. 1027. ((ISBN|0-9534944-7-0))</ref>

== Other definitions ==
((prose|section|date=June 2023))
# A [[political spectrum]] that reflects positions towards the sociopolitical consequences of the biotech revolution.<ref name="Hughes 2004">((cite book|title=Citizen Cyborg: Why Democratic Societies Must Respond to the Redesigned Human of the Future|author=Hughes, James|publisher=Westview Press|year=2004|isbn=0-8133-4198-1))</ref><ref name="Rifkin 2002">((cite web|url=http://www.thenation.com/doc/20020218/rifkin|title=Fusion Biopolitics|last=Rifkin|first=Jeremy|author-link=Jeremy Rifkin|date=January 31, 2002|publisher=[[The Nation]]|access-date=2008-03-16|archive-date=16 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090616061931/http://www.thenation.com/doc/20020218/rifkin|url-status=dead))</ref>
# Political [[advocacy]] in support of, or in opposition to, some applications of [[biotechnology]].<ref name="Hughes 2004" /><ref name="Rifkin 2002" />
#[[Public policy|Public policies]] regarding some applications of biotechnology.<ref name="Hughes 2004" /><ref name="Rifkin 2002" />
# Political advocacy concerned with the [[quality of life|welfare]] of [[biocentrism (ethics)|all forms of life]] and how they are moved by one another.<ref>((cite book|title=Introduction to Civil War|author=Tiqqun, translated by Alexander R. Galloway and Jason E. smith|year=2010|publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-1-58435-086-6))</ref>
# The politics of [[bioregionalism]].
# The interplay and interdisciplinary studies relating [[biology and political science]],<ref name="Blank2001">((cite book|author=Robert Blank|title=Biology and Political Science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rAXYIkbWxawC|year=2001|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-20436-1))</ref> primarily the study of the relationship between biology and political behavior.<ref name="Lemke2011b">((cite book|author=Thomas Lemke|author-link=Thomas Lemke (sociologist)|title=Biopolitics: An Advanced Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cRVNFqFPGtoC&pg=PA9|year=2011|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=978-0-8147-5241-8|pages=16–17))</ref> Most of these works agree on three fundamental aspects. First, the object of investigation is primarily political behavior, which—and this is the underlying assumption—is caused in a substantial way by objectively demonstrable biological factors. For example, the relationship of [[biology and political orientation]], but also biological correlates of [[partisanship]] and [[voting behavior]].<ref name="SomitPeterson2011">((cite book|author1=Albert Somit|author2=Steven A. Peterson|title=Biology and Political Behavior: The Brain, Genes and Politics - The Cutting Edge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=__M0gG5kWg8C&pg=PA232|year=2011|publisher=Emerald Group Publishing|isbn=978-0-85724-580-9|page=232))</ref> (See also [[sociobiology]].)

== In the colonial setting ==
((More citations needed section|date=June 2023))

Biopolitics, read as a variation of Foucault's [[Biopower]], has proven to be a substantive concept in the field of [[Postcolonialism|postcolonial studies]]. Foucault's term refers to the intersection between power (political, economic, judicial etc.) and the individual's bodily autonomy.<ref>Schirato, T., Danaher, G., & Jen, W. E. B. B. (2012). Understanding Foucault: A critical introduction. Allen & Unwin.
p. 90</ref> According to postcolonial theorists, present within the colonial setting are various mechanisms of power that consolidate the political authority of the colonizer; Biopolitics is thus the means by which a colonising force utilises political power to regulate and control the bodily autonomy of the colonized subject, who are oppressed and [[Subaltern (postcolonialism)|subaltern]]. [[Edward Said]], in his work [[Orientalism (book)|Orientalism]], analysed the means by which colonial powers rationalised their relationship with the colonized societies they inhabited through discursive means, and how these discourses continue to influence modern-day depictions of the Orient.<ref>Said, E. W. (1979). Orientalism. Vintage. p.113</ref> [[Frantz Fanon|Franz Fanon]] applied a psychoanalytic frame to his theories of subjectivity, arguing that the subjectivity of the colonized is in constant dialogue with the oppressive political power of the colonizer, a mirroring of the Oedipal father-son dynamic.<ref>Fanon, F. (2008). Black skin, white masks. Grove press.</ref> While not using the term himself, Fanon's work has been cited as a major development in the conceptualisation of biopolitics in the colonial setting.<ref>Nayar, P. K. (2019). Fanon and Biopolitics. In Frantz Fanon and Emancipatory Social Theory (pp. 217-230). Brill.</ref>

Catastrophes are periodically mobilized as vehicles for historical transformation. European states often found themselves grappling with the sociobiological propensities of their populations. Mercantilism and capitalist modes of production led to a modern biopolitical approach to famine: the modern state depended on providing a diet sufficient to keep the biological machines of industrial capitalism running. The British developed biopolitics in tandem with colonization to help solidify their control over the Irish.

The French Third Republic in Western Africa also employed biopolitics in their colonial efforts. The ''fin-de-siecle'' revolution in microbiology and specific developments in public health legislation aided the French. Furthermore, thanks to the germ theory of disease pioneered by Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur, the aetiology of some of the most deadly diseases—cholera and typhoid—began to be understood in the 1890s, and the French used this new scientific knowledge in the tropics of West Africa. Illnesses like the bubonic plague were isolated, and vectors of malaria and yellow fever were identified for the political purpose of public health. They passed public health laws to introduce up-to-date health standards. The goal was for African subjects to respond in exactly the same way as metropolitan citizens to market incentives and new technologies imposed by a progressive state.((dubious|date=January 2021)) Thus, public health was a political concern in the sense that the state hoped citizens would be more productive if they lived longer.((original research inline|date=January 2021))

==Michel Foucault==

((See also|Biopower))

French philosopher and social theorist [[Michel Foucault]] first discussed his thoughts on biopolitics in his lecture series "Society Must Be Defended" given at the [[Collège de France]] from 1975 to 1976.<ref>((Cite book|title = Society Must Be Defended|last = Michel|first = Foucault|publisher = Picador|year = 2003|pages = 242–243))</ref>  Foucault's concept of biopolitics is largely derived from his own notion of [[biopower]], and the extension of [[Political power|state power]] over both the physical and political bodies of a population.  While only mentioned briefly in his "Society Must Be Defended" lectures, the conceptualisation of biopolitics developed by Foucault has become prominent in social science and the humanities.<ref>Lemke, T., Casper, M. J., & Moore, L. J. (2011). Biopolitics: an advanced introduction. NYU Press.</ref>

Foucault described biopolitics as "a new technology of power...[that] exists at a different level, on a different scale, and [that] has a different bearing area, and makes use of very different instruments."<ref name="Foucault 1997 242">((cite book|last=Foucault|first=Michel|title=Society Must Be Defended: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1975-1976|year=1997|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York, NY|isbn=0312422660|pages=242))</ref>  More than a disciplinary mechanism, Foucault's biopolitics acts as a control apparatus exerted over a population as a whole or, as Foucault stated, "a global mass."<ref name="Foucault 1997 242"/> In the years that followed, Foucault continued to develop his notions of the biopolitical in his "The Birth of Biopolitics" and "The Courage of Truth" lectures.<ref>[[Woodrow Wilson]] (1918) The New Freedom pp.45-48 Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall</ref><ref>Michel Foucault (2007) Security, Territory, Population 1977-1978 pp. 311-332 pp. 333-361 pp. 378-380</ref>

Foucault gave numerous examples of biopolitical control when he first mentioned the concept in 1976.  These examples include "ratio of births to deaths, the rate of reproduction, the fertility of a population, and so on."<ref>((cite book|last=Foucault|first=Michel|title=Society Must Be Defended: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1975-1976|year=1997|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York, NY|isbn=0312422660|pages=243))</ref> He contrasted this method of social control with political power in the Middle Ages. Whereas in the Middle Ages pandemics made death a permanent and perpetual part of life, this was then shifted around the end of the 18th century with the introduction of [[Milieu intérieur|milieu]] into the [[Biological Sciences|biological sciences]]. Foucault then gives different contrasts to the then [[Physical Sciences|physical sciences]] in which the [[industrialisation]] of the population was coming to the fore through the concept of work, where Foucault then argues power starts to become a target for this milieu by the 17th century.<ref>((Cite book|title=Security, Territory, Population Lectures At The College de France|last=Michel|first=Foucault|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2007|pages=55–86, 20, 27 (Note 37)))</ref><ref>((Cite book|title=Society Must Be Defended|last=Michel|first=Foucault|year=1975|pages=241–244, 252))</ref> The development of vaccines and medicines dealing with public hygiene allowed death to be held (and/or withheld) from certain populations.  This was the introduction of "more subtle, more rational mechanisms: insurance, individual and collective savings, safety measures, and so on."<ref>((cite book|last=Foucault|first=Michel|title=Society Must Be Defended: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1975-1976|year=1997|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York, NY|isbn=0312422660|pages=243–244))</ref>

==Notes==
((Reflist|30em))

==Further reading==
* Research in Biopolitics: Volume 1: ''Sexual Politics and Political Feminism'' Glendon A Schubert. Editor Albert Somit (1991)
* Research in Biopolitics: Volume 2: ''Biopolitics and the Mainstream: Contributions of Biology to Political Science'' Editor Albert Somit (1994)
* Research in Biopolitics: Volume 3: ''Human Nature and Politics'' Editors Steven A. Peterson Albert Somit (1995)
* Research in Biopolitics: Volume 4: ''Research in Biopolitics'' Editors Albert Somit Steven A. Peterson (1996)
* Research in Biopolitics: Volume 5: ''Recent Explorations in Biology and Politics'' Editors Albert Somit Steven A. Peterson (1997)
* Research In Biopolitics: Volume 6: ''Sociobiology and Politics'' Editors Albert Somit Steven A. Peterson (1998)
* Research In Biopolitics: Volume 7: ''Ethnic Conflicts Explained By Ethnic Nepotism'' Editors Albert Somit Steven A. Peterson (1999)
* Research In Biopolitics: Volume 8: ''Evolutionary Approaches In The Behavioral Sciences: Toward A Better Understanding of Human Nature'' Editors Steven A. Peterson Albert Somit (2001)
* Research In Biopolitics: Volume 9: ''Biology and Political Behavior: The Brain, Genes and Politics - the Cutting Edge''; Editor Albert Somit (2011)

==External links==
* Steinmann, Kate. (2011). [http://fillip.ca/content/apparatus-capture-trace-photography-and-biopolitics Apparatus, Capture, Trace: Photography and Biopolitics] in: Fillip. Fall 2011.
* Verde Garrido, Miguelángel. (2015). [https://dx.doi.org/10.24908/ss.v13i2.5331 Contesting a biopolitics of information and communications: The importance of truth and sousveillance after Snowden] in: Surveillance & Society (volume 13, number 2; pages 153–167).

((Michel Foucault))
((Authority control))

[[Category:Biopolitics| ]]
[[Category:Bioethics]]
[[Category:Michel Foucault]]
[[Category:Power (social and political) concepts]]

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