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British Pakistanis (Urdu: برطانیہ میں مقیم پاکستانی; also known as Pakistani British people or Pakistani Britons) are citizens or residents of the United Kingdom whose ancestral roots lie in Pakistan. This includes people born in the UK who are of Pakistani descent, Pakistani-born people who have migrated to the UK and those of Pakistani origin from overseas who migrated to the UK.
Due to the historical relations between the two countries, immigration to the UK from the region, which is now Pakistan, began in small numbers in the mid-nineteenth century when parts of what is now Pakistan came under the British India. People from those regions served as soldiers in the British Indian Army and some were deployed to other parts of the British Empire. However, it was following the Second World War and the break-up of the British Empire and the independence of Pakistan that Pakistani immigration to the United Kingdom increased, especially during the 1950s and 1960s. This was made easier as Pakistan was a member of the Commonwealth.[6] Pakistani immigrants helped to solve labour shortages in the British steel, textile and engineering industries. The National Health Service (NHS) recruited doctors from Pakistan in the 1960s.[7]
The British Pakistani population has grown from about 10,000 in 1951 to over 1.5 million in 2021.[1][8] The vast majority of them live in England, with a sizable number in Scotland and smaller numbers in Wales and Northern Ireland. According to the 2021 Census, Pakistanis in England and Wales numbered 1,587,819 or 2.7% of the population.[9][10] In Northern Ireland, the equivalent figure was 1,596, representing less than 0.1% of the population.[3] The census in Scotland was delayed for a year and took place in 2022; ethnicity results for Scotland are expected to be published in early 2024.[11] The majority of British Pakistanis are Muslim; around 93% of those living in England and Wales at the time of the 2021 Census stated their religion was Islam.[12]
Since their settlement, British Pakistanis have had diverse contributions and influences on British society, politics, culture, economy and sport. Whilst social issues include high relative poverty rates among the community according to the 2001 census,[13] significant progress has been made in recent years, with the 2021 Census showing British Pakistanis as having amongst the highest levels of homeownership in England and Wales.[14][15]
The earliest period of Asian migration to Britain has not been ascertained. It is known that Romani (Gypsy) groups such as the Romanichal and Kale arrived in the region during the Middle Ages, having originated from what is now North India and Pakistan and traveled westward to Europe via Southwest Asia around 1000 CE, intermingling with local populations over several centuries.[16][17][18]
Immigration from what is now Pakistan to the United Kingdom began long before Pakistan's independence in 1947. Muslim immigrants from Kashmir, Punjab, Sindh, the North-West Frontier and Balochistan and other parts of South Asia, arrived in the British Isles as early as the mid-seventeenth century as employees of the East India Company, typically as lashkars and sailors in British port cities.[19][20] These immigrants were often the first Asians to be seen in British port cities and were initially perceived as indolent due to their reliance on Christian charities.[21] Despite this, most early Pakistani immigrants married local white British women because there were few South Asian women in Britain.[22]
During the colonial era, Asians continued coming to Britain as seamen, traders, students, domestic workers, cricketers, political officials and visitors and some of them settled in the region.[23] South Asian seamen sometimes settled after ill- treatment or being abandoned by ship masters.[24][25]
Many early Pakistanis came to the UK as scholars and studied at major British institutions, before later returning to British India. An example of such a person is Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan. Jinnah came to the UK in 1892 and began an apprenticeship at Graham's Shipping and Trading Company. After completing his apprenticeship, Jinnah joined Lincoln's Inn, where he trained as a barrister. At 19, he became the youngest person from South Asia to be called to the bar in Britain.[26]
British interwar period
Most early Pakistani settlers (then part of the British India Empire) and their families moved from port towns to the Midlands, as Britain declared war on Germany in 1939, many expatriates mainly hailing from the city of Mirpur worked in munitions factories in Birmingham. After the war, most of these early settlers stayed on in the region and took advantage of an increase in the number of jobs.[27] These settlers were later joined by their families.[28]
In 1932, the Indian National Congress survey of 'all Indians outside India' (of which Pakistani regions were then a part) estimated that there were 7,128 Indians in the United Kingdom.[29]
There were 832,500 Muslim Indian soldiers in 1945; most of these recruits were from what is now Pakistan.[30] These soldiers fought alongside the British Army during the First and Second World Wars, particularly in the former during the Western Front and in the latter, during the Battle of France, the North African Campaign and the Burma Campaign. Many contributed to the war effort as skilled labourers, including as assembly-line workers in the aircraft factory at Castle Bromwich, Birmingham, which produced Spitfire fighter aircraft.[30] Most returned to South Asia after their service, although many of these former soldiers returned to Britain in the 1950s and 1960s to fill labour shortages.
Post-Independence
Following the Second World War, the break-up of the British Empire and the independence of Pakistan, Pakistani immigration to the United Kingdom increased, especially during the 1950s and 1960s. Many Pakistanis came to the UK following the turmoil during the partition of India and Pakistani independence. Among them were those who migrated to Pakistan upon displacement from India and then migrated to the UK; thus becoming secondary migrants.[31] Migration was made easier as Pakistan was a member of the Commonwealth of Nations.[6] Employers invited Pakistanis to fill labour shortages which arose in Britain after the Second World War.
As Commonwealth citizens, they were eligible for most British civic rights. They found employment in the textile industries of Lancashire and Yorkshire, manufacturing in the West Midlands and the car production and food processing industries of Luton and Slough. It was common for Pakistani employees to work on night shifts and other less desirable hours.[32]
Many expatriates began emigrating from Pakistan after the completion of the Mangla Dam in Mirpur, Azad Kashmir, in the late-1950s led to the destruction of hundreds of villages. Up to 5,000 people from Mirpur (5% of the displaced)[33] left for Britain, while others were allotted land in neighbouring Punjab or used monetary compensation to resettle elsewhere in Pakistan.[31] The British contractor which had built the dam gave the displaced community legal and financial assistance.[34] Those from unaffected areas of Pakistan, such as the Punjab, also emigrated to the UK to help fill labour shortages. Pakistanis began leaving Pakistan in the 1960s. They worked in the foundries of the English Midlands and a significant number also settled in Southall, West London.[35]
During the 1960s, a considerable number of Pakistanis also arrived from urban areas. Many of them were qualified teachers, doctors and engineers.[32] They had a predisposition to settle in London because of its greater employment opportunities compared to the Midlands or the North of England.[32] Most medical staff from Pakistan were recruited in the 1960s and almost all worked for the National Health Service.[36] At the same time, the number of Pakistanis coming over as workers declined.[31]
In addition, there was a stream of migrants from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).[28][37] During the 1970s, many East African Asians, most of whom already held British passports because they were brought to Africa by British colonialists, entered the UK from Kenya and Uganda. Idi Aminexpelled all Ugandan Asians in 1972 because of his Black supremacist views and the perception that they were responsible for the country's economic stagnation.[38] The Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962 and Immigration Act 1971 largely restricted any further primary immigration to the UK, although family members of already-settled immigrants were allowed to join their relatives.[39]
The early Pakistani workers who entered the UK came intending to work temporarily and eventually returning home. However, this changed into permanent family immigration after the 1962 Act, as well as socio-economic circumstances and the future of their children, which most families saw lay in Britain.[31]
When the UK experienced deindustrialisation in the 1970s, many British Pakistanis became unemployed. The change from the manufacturing sector to the service sector was difficult for ethnic minorities and working-class White Britons alike; especially for those with little academic education. The Midlands and North of England were areas which were heavily reliant on manufacturing industries and the effects of deindustrialisation continue to be felt in these areas.[40] As a result, increasing numbers of British Pakistanis have resorted to self-employment. National statistics from 2004 show that one in seven British Pakistani men work as taxi drivers or chauffeurs.[41]
Demographics
Population pyramid of Asian or Asian British Pakistanis in 2021 (in England and Wales).
Population
According to the 2021 Census, Pakistanis in England & Wales enumerated 1,587,819 or 2.7% of the population.[10][9] Of those Pakistanis living in England, Wales and Scotland in 2011, 56% were born in the UK, 40% in Pakistan and 4% elsewhere.[42] According to estimates by the Office for National Statistics, the number of people born in Pakistan living in the UK in 2021 was 456,000, which makes it the third most common country of birth in the UK.[43]
The Pakistan government's Ministry of Overseas Pakistanis estimates that 1.26 million Pakistanis eligible for dual nationality live in the UK, constituting well over half of the total number of Pakistanis in Europe.[8][44] Up to 250,000 Pakistanis come to the UK each year, for work, to visit or other purposes.[45] Likewise, up to 270,000 British citizens travel to Pakistan each year, mainly to visit family.[45][46] Excluding British citizens of Pakistani descent, the number of individuals living in the UK with a Pakistani passport was estimated at 188,000 in 2017, making Pakistan the eighth most common non-British nationality in the UK.[47]
The majority of British Pakistanis are from the Azad Kashmir and Punjab areas of Pakistan,[48] with Azad Kashmiris making up the largest and Punjabis making up the second largest portion. A high proportion of the members of Pakistani communities in the West Midlands and the North originated in Azad Kashmir.[49] Large communities from Azad Kashmir can be found in Birmingham, Bradford, Oldham and the surrounding northern towns.[48] Luton and Slough have the largest Azad Kashmiri communities in the south of England, while a large proportion of Punjabis also reside in the south.[32] There is also a small Pakistani Pashtun population in the UK.[50]
The cities or districts with the largest communities, by Pakistani ethnicity in the England and Wales 2021 census, are as follows: Birmingham (pop. 195,102), Bradford (139,553), Manchester (65,875), Kirklees (54,795), Redbridge (44,000) and Luton (41,143).[51]
Historic
In the 2011 UK Census, 1,174,983 residents classified themselves as ethnically Pakistani (excluding people of mixed ethnicity), regardless of their birthplace; 1,112,212 of them lived in England.[1] This represented an increase of 427,000 over the 747,285 residents recorded in the 2001 UK Census.[52]
Demographer Ceri Peach has estimated the number of British Pakistanis in the 1951 to 1991 censuses. He back-projected the ethnic composition of the 2001 census to the estimated minority populations during previous census years. The results are as follows:
Birthplace/year of arrival of British Pakistanis in England and Wales (2021 census)[54]
Born in the UK (59.2%)
Before 1950 (0.0%)
1951 to 1960 (0.3%)
1961 to 1970 (3.1%)
1971 to 1980 (3.9%)
1981 to 1990 (3.4%)
1991 to 2000 (5.7%)
2001 to 2010 (10.5%)
2011 to 2021 (13.9%)
At the time of the 2021 Census, the distribution of people describing their ethnicity as Pakistani in England, Wales and Northern Ireland was as follows:[55][3]
Region
Number of British Pakistanis
Percentage of total British Pakistani population
British Pakistanis as percentage of region's population
Greater London has the largest Pakistani community in the United Kingdom. The 2021 Census recorded 290,549 Pakistanis living in London.[55] However, it only forms 3.3% of London's population, which is significantly lower than other British cities. The population is very diverse, with comparable numbers of Punjabis, Pashtuns and Kashmiris, and smaller communities of Sindhis and Balochs.[48][4] This mix makes the Pakistani community of London more diverse than other UK communities, whereas a high proportion of Pakistani communities in Northern England came from Azad Kashmir.[32]
Birmingham has the second-largest Pakistani community in the United Kingdom. The 2021 Census recorded that there were 195,102 Pakistanis living in Birmingham, making up 17% of the city's total population.[55]
Bradford, in the north of England, is considered to be a typical "mill and mosque town" due to its large Pakistani community.
Bradford has the third-largest Pakistani community in the United Kingdom. The 2021 Census recorded 139,553 Pakistanis, making up 25.5% of the city's total population.[55]
Manchester has the fourth-largest Pakistani community in the United Kingdom. The 2021 Census recorded 65,875 Pakistanis, making up 11.9% of the city's total population.[55]
In the wider area of Greater Manchester, there were 209,061 Pakistanis, making up 7.3% of the population. The towns of Oldham and Rochdale have significant Pakistani populations, at 13.5% and 13.6% respectively.[55]
A significant number of Manchester-based Pakistani business families have moved down the A34 road to live in the affluent Heald Green area.[59] The late Professor Pnina Werbner associated the suburban movement of Pakistani-origin Muslims in Manchester with the formation of "gilded ghettoes" in the sought-after commuter suburbs of Cheshire.[35]
Luton
The 2021 Census recorded 41,143 Pakistanis in Luton, making up 18.3% of the total population.[55]
The 2011 Census recorded 22,405 Pakistanis in Glasgow, making up 3.78% of the city's total population.
There are large Pakistani communities throughout the city, notably in the Pollokshields area of South Glasgow, where there are said to be some 'high standard' Pakistani takeaways and Asian fabric shops.[60]
Pakistanis also make up the largest 'visible' ethnic minority in Scotland, representing nearly one-third of the non-White ethnic minority population.[61]
Most British Pakistanis speak English, and those who were born in the UK consider British English to be their first language. First-generation and recent immigrants speak Pakistani English. Urdu, the national language of Pakistan, is understood and spoken by many British Pakistanis at a native level, and is the fourth-most commonly spoken language in the UK.[62][63] Some secondary schools and colleges teach Urdu for GCSEs and A Levels.[64]Madrassas also offer it.[65][66] According to Sajid Mansoor Qaisrani, Urdu language periodicals of the 1990s published in UK used to focus exclusively on South Asian issues, with no relevance to British society.[67] Coverage of local British issues and problems of local Pakistanis in the UK used to be sparse.[67] Beyond Pakistani youth's interest in identifying with their ethnicity and religious identity, Urdu was of little use to them in finding suitable employment opportunities.[67]
As the majority of Pakistanis in Britain are from Azad Kashmir and Punjab, some common languages spoken amongst Pakistanis in Britain are Punjabi, Pothwari and Hindko, which are closely related Punjabi dialects.[68] Other Punjabi dialects are spoken in Britain, making Punjabi the third-most commonly spoken language.[62][69]
Many British Pakistanis have emigrated from the UK, establishing a diaspora of their own. There are around 80,000 Britons in Pakistan,[71][72] a substantial number of whom are British Pakistanis who have resettled in Pakistan. The town of Mirpur in Azad Kashmir, where the majority of British Pakistanis hail from, has a large expatriate population of resettled British Pakistanis and is dubbed "Little England".[73][74][75]
Other British Pakistanis have migrated elsewhere to Europe, North America, Western Asia and Australia. Dubai, in the UAE, remains a popular destination for British Pakistani expatriates to live although there is no minimum wage and few anti-racism groups.[76]
Over 90% of Pakistanis in the UK are Muslims. The largest proportion of these belong to the Sunni branch of Islam, mainly Deobandi (of the Tablighi Jamaat) and Sunni Barelvi, with a significant minority belonging to the Shia branch.[48]
Other notable sects include Ahmadiyya, whose spiritual leader, Mirza Masroor Ahmad, is based in London,[80] and Sufism. Mosques, community centres and religious youth organisations play an integral part in British Pakistani social life.[81]
Pakistan's Independence Day is celebrated on 14 August in large Pakistani-populated areas of various cities, including Green Street in Newham, London, and the Curry mile in Manchester. Pakistani Muslims also observe the month of Ramadan and mark the Islamic festivals of Eid al-Adha and Eid al-Fitr.[84]
The annual Birmingham Eid Mela attracts more than 20,000 British Pakistanis who celebrate the festival. The Eid Mela also welcomes Muslims of other ethnic backgrounds. International and UK Asian musicians help to celebrate the nationwide Muslim community through its culture, music, food and sport.[85]
Green Street in East London hosts Europe's "first Asian shopping mall".[86] A number of high-end Pakistani fashion and other retail brands have opened stores in the UK.[87][88]
The popular Balti dish has its roots in Birmingham, where it was believed to have been created by a Pakistani immigrant of Balti origin in 1977. The dish is thought to have borrowed native tastes from the northeastern Pakistani region of Baltistan.[90][91] In 2009, the Birmingham City Council attempted to trademark the Balti dish to give the curry Protected Geographical Status alongside items such as luxury cheese and champagne.[92] The area of Birmingham where the Balti dish was first served is known locally as the "Balti Triangle" or "Balti Belt".[93][94]
Chicken tikka masala has long been amongst the nation's favourite dishes and is claimed to have been invented by a Pakistani chef in Glasgow, though its origins remain disputed.[95][96] There has been support for a campaign in Glasgow to obtain European Union Protected Designation of origin status for it.[97]
Pakistanis are well represented in the British food industry. Many self-employed British Pakistanis own takeaways and restaurants. "Indian restaurants" in the North of England are almost entirely Pakistani owned.[98] According to the Food Standards Agency, the South Asian food industry in the UK is worth £3.2 billion, accounting for two-thirds of all eating out, and serving about 2.5 million British customers every week.[99]Curry sauces are sold in British supermarkets by British Pakistani entrepreneurs like Manchester-born Nighat Awan. Awan's Asian food business, Shere Khan, has made her one of the richest women in Britain.[100]
Many young British Pakistanis find it difficult to make their way to the highest level of playing for England, despite much talent around the country. Many concerns about this have been documented although the number of British Pakistanis making progress in representing England is on the rise.[112]
The Pakistan national cricket team enjoys a substantial following among British Pakistanis, with the level of support translating to the equivalent of a home advantage whenever the team tours the UK. The "Stani Army" is a group consisting of British Pakistanis who follow the team, especially when they play in the UK. The Stani Army is seen as the "rival" fan club to India's "Bharat Army".[113][114][115][116][117] England and Pakistan share a long cricketing relationship, often characterised by rivalries.[118][119]
Football is also widely followed and played by many young British Pakistanis (see British Asians in association football). Many players on the Pakistan national football team are British-born Pakistanis who became eligible to represent the country because of their Pakistani heritage. Zesh Rehman is a football defender who played briefly for Fulham F.C., becoming the first British Asian to play in the Premier League, before also playing for the English national U-18, U-19 and U-20 football teams until eventually opting for Pakistan.[120]Easah Suliman became the first player of Asian heritage to captain an England football side, having done so at Under-16, Under-17 and Under-19 levels,[121] until eventually opting for Pakistan at senior level.[122][123] Suliman played every game at centre back in the England Under-19s victorious UEFA European Under-19 Championship campaign in July 2017, scoring the opening goal in England's 2–1 final victory over Portugal.[124]
Zidane Iqbal signed his first professional contract with Manchester United in April 2021,[125][126] and made his first-team debut for Manchester United on 8 December 2021 as an 89th-minute substitute in a Champions League match against Young Boys.[127] Thus, he became the first British-born South Asian to play for the senior club, and the first ever British South Asian to play in the Champions League.[128][129]
Hockey and polo are commonly played in Pakistan, with the former being a national sport, but these sports are not as popular among British Pakistanis, possibly because of the urban lifestyles which the majority of them embrace. Imran Sherwani was a hockey player of Pakistani descent who played for the English and Great Britain national field hockey teams.[130]
Through their publications, diaspora writers have developed a body of work that has come to be known as Pakistani English literature.[137]
Ethnicity and cultural assimilation
A report of a study conducted by The University of Essex found British Pakistanis identify with 'Britishness' more than any other Britons. The study is one of several recent studies that have found that Pakistanis in Britain express a strong sense of belonging in Britain. The report showed that 90% of Pakistanis feel a strong sense of belonging in Britain compared to 84% of white Britons.[138]
English Pakistanis tend to identify much more with the United Kingdom than with England, with 63% describing themselves in a Policy Exchange survey as exclusively "British" and not "English" in terms of nationality, and only 15% saying they were solely English.[139]
Around 70% of all British Pakistanis trace their origins to the administrative territory of Azad Kashmir in northeastern Pakistan, mainly from the Mirpur, Kotli and Bhimber districts.[140][141]
Christopher Snedden writes that most of the native residents of Azad Kashmir are not of Kashmiri ethnicity; rather, they could be called "Jammuites" due to their historical and cultural links with that region, which is coterminous with neighbouring Punjab and Hazara.[142][143] Because their region was formerly a part of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir and is named after it, many Azad Kashmiris have adopted the "Kashmiri" identity, whereas in an ethnolinguistic context, the term "Kashmiri" would ordinarily refer to natives of the Kashmir Valley region, from where communities from other parts of Pakistan, such as Kashmiri of Punjab from Lahore and other cities originate from.[144] The population of Azad Kashmir has strong historical, cultural and linguistic affinities with the neighbouring populations of upper Punjab and Potohar region of Pakistan.[145][146]
The first generation migrant from Azad Kashmir were not highly educated, and being from rural settlements, had little or no experience of urban living in Pakistan.[5] Migration from Jammu and Kashmir began soon after the Second World War as the majority of the male population of this area and the Potohar region worked in the British armed forces, as well as to fill labour shortages in industry. But the mass migration phenomenon accelerated in the 1960s, when, to improve the supply of water, the Mangla Dam project was built in the area, flooding the surrounding farmlands. Up to 50,000 people from Mirpur (5% of the displaced) resettled in Britain. More Azad Kashmiris joined their relatives in Britain after benefiting from government compensation and liberal migration policies. Large Azad Kashmiri communities can be found in Birmingham, Bradford, Manchester, Leeds, Luton and the surrounding towns.[147]
The Azad Kashmiri expatriate community has made notable progress in UK politics and a sizeable number of MPs, councillors, lord mayors and deputy mayors are representing the community in different constituencies.[148]
Punjabis make up the second-largest sub-group of British Pakistanis, estimated to make up to a third of all British Pakistanis.[149] With an equally large number from Indian Punjab, two-thirds of all British Asians are of Punjabi descent, and they are the largest Punjabi community outside of South Asia,[149] resulting in Punjabi being the third-most commonly spoken language in the UK.[62][69]
People who came from the Punjab area integrated much more easily into the British society as early Punjabi immigrants to Britain tended to have higher education credentials and found it easier to assimilate because many already had a basic knowledge of the English language (primarily Pakistani English).[35] Research by Teesside University has found the British Punjabi community of late has become one of the most highly educated and economically successful ethnic minorities in the UK.[150]
Most Pakistani Punjabis living in the UK trace their roots to villages of the Pothohar region (Jhelum, Gujar Khan, Attock ) of northern Punjab, along with villages in the Central Punjab (Faisalabad, Sahiwal, Gujrat, and Sargodha) region, while more recent immigrants have also arrived from large cities such as Lahore and Multan.[5][151] British Punjabis are commonly found in the south of England, the Midlands, and the major cities in the north (with smaller minorities in former mill towns in Lancashire and Yorkshire).[152]
Pakistani Pashtuns in the United Kingdom mainly originate from the provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and northern Balochistan in Pakistan, though there are also smaller communities from other parts of Pakistan, such as Pashtuns of Punjab from Attock.[34] There are several estimates of the Pashtun population in the UK. Ethnologue estimates that there are up to 87,000 native Pashto-speakers in the UK; this figure also includes Afghan immigrants belonging to the Pashtun ethnicity.[153] Another report shows that there are over 100,000 Pashtuns in Britain, making them the largest Pashtun community in Europe.[154]
Major Pashtun settlement in the United Kingdom can be dated over the course of the past five decades. There is a British Pashtun Council which has been formed by the Pashtun community in the UK.
British Pashtuns have continued to maintain ties with Pakistan over the years, taking keen interest in political and socioeconomic developments in Pakistan.[154]
There are over 30,000 Sindhis in Britain.[155][70]Karachi is the main city in the province and largest city in the country, the last UK airline pulled out from Karachi airport in 1991 and has not had such a link since.[156]
Baloch
There is a small Baloch community in the UK, originating from the Balochistan province of southwestern Pakistan and neighbouring regions.[157] There are many Baloch associations and groups active in the UK, including the Baloch Students and Youth Association (BSYA),[158][159] Baloch Cultural Society, Baloch Human Rights Council (UK) and others.[160]
Some Baloch political leaders and workers are based in the UK, where they found exile.[161][162][163][164]
Muhajirs
There are over 400,000 Urdu speakers in the UK,[70] some of whom are Muhajirs.[157] Muhajirs originally migrated from present-day India to Pakistan following the partition of British India in 1947. Most of them settled in Pakistan's largest city Karachi, where they form the demographic majority. Many Muhajir Pakistanis later migrated to Britain, effecting a secondary migration.[31]
Altaf Hussain, leader of the Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM)—the largest political party in Karachi, with its roots lying in the Muhajir community—has been based in England in self-imposed exile since 1992. He is controversially regarded to have virtually "ruled" and "remotely governed" Karachi from his residence in the north London suburb of Edgware.[165][166]
Others
There is also a Pakistani Hazara community in the UK, concentrated particularly in Milton Keynes, northeastern London, Southampton and Birmingham. They migrated to the UK from Quetta and its surroundings, which is historically home to the large Hazara population in Pakistan.[167][168][169]
Health and social issues
Health
Pakistanis together with Bangladeshis in the UK have poor health by many measures, for instance there is a fivefold rate of diabetes.[170] Pakistani men have the highest rate of heart disease in the UK.[171]
In the UK, women of South Asian heritage, including British Pakistanis, are the least likely to attend breast cancer screening. A study showed that British-Pakistani women faced cultural and language barriers and were not aware that breast screening takes place in a female-only environment.[172][173][174]
Sexual health
British Pakistanis, male and female, on average claim to have had only one sexual partner. The average British Pakistani male claims to have lost his virginity at the age of 20, the average female at 22, giving an average age of 21. 3.2% of Pakistani males report that they have been diagnosed with a sexually transmitted infection (STI), compared to 3.6% of Pakistani females.[175]
Cultural norms regarding issues such as chastity and marriage have resulted in British Pakistanis having a substantially older age for first intercourse, a lower number of partners, and lower STI rates than the national average.[175]
Cousin marriages and health risks
Research in Birmingham in the 1980s suggested that 50-70% of marriages within the Pakistani community were consanguineous (blood related).[176] In 2005, it was estimated that nationwide 55% of British Pakistanis were married to a first cousin[177] and around 70% in Bradford.[178][179] A more recent study on the Bradford Pakistani community in 2023 has suggested that there has been a sharp fall in the number of babies with parents who were first or second cousins, falling from 60% in 2013 to now only 46%. One teenager in the study noted "If you're really romantically into your cousin you can go for it, but now there isn't as much pushing of cousin marriage."[180]
Such a close relationship can double the likelihood of a child suffering from a birth defect from 3% to 6%.[181][182] Children born to closely related Pakistani parents had an autosomal recessive condition rate of 4% compared to 0.1% for European parents.[183][176]
Cousin marriages or marriages within the same tribe and clan are common in some parts of South Asia, including rural areas of Pakistan.[184] A major motivation is to preserve patrilineal tribal identity.[185] The tribes to which British Pakistanis belong include Jats, Ahirs, Gujjars, Awans, Arains, Rajputs and several others, all of whom are spread throughout Pakistan and north India. As a result, there are some common genealogical origins within these tribes.[186] Some British Pakistanis view cousin or in-tribe marriages as a way of preserving this ancient tribal tradition and maintaining a sense of brotherhood, an extension of the biradri (brotherhood) system which underpins community support networks.[157][187]
According to the British Home Office, cases involving Pakistan are routinely the most common country in which cases of forced marriage are investigated. In 2014, 38% of the cases of forced marriage investigated involved families of Pakistani origin.[189] This figure rose to 49% in 2022, around three-quarters of victims were females and just over half of cases involved persons under 21.[190]
60% of the Pakistani forced marriages handled by the British High Commission assistance unit in Islamabad are linked to the small towns of Bhimber and Kotli and the region of Mirpur in Azad Kashmir.[191]
According to 2017 data by the Forced Marriage Unit (FMU), a joint effort between the Home Office and the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, of the 439 callers related to Pakistan, 78.8% were female and 21.0% were male, 13.7% were under the age of 15 and another 13.0% were aged 16–17. Over 85% of the cases dealt with by the FMU were dealt with entirely in the UK, preventing the marriage before it could take place. Victims were in some cases forced to sponsor a visa for the spouse.[192]
Education
Data from the 2021 Census shows that 33% of British Pakistanis in England and Wales hold degree level qualifications, compared to 31% of White British people. This has increased since 1991, when the figures for both groups holding a degree were 7% and 13%, respectively.[193][194][195]
25% of British Pakistanis in England and Wales did not have qualifications, compared to 18% of White British people, making them of one of the least qualified major groups.[194][196][197]
Secondary education
According to Department for Education statistics for the 2021–22 academic year, British Pakistani pupils in England attained below the national average for academic performance at A-Level, but above the national average for GCSE level. 15.8% of British Pakistani pupils achieved at least 3 As at A Level[198] and an average score of 49.1 was achieved in Attainment 8 scoring at GCSE level. In 2021, 31.5% of Pakistani students in England who were eligible for free school meals achieved a strong pass in English and Maths. This figure is 9% higher than the national average of 22.5%.[199]
In 2023, a British Pakistani girl achieved a record 34 GCSE qualifications. In addition, her IQ was registered at 161, which put her ahead of Albert Einstein[200]
Average GCSE Attainment 8 score (out of 90.0) (2021/22)[203]
Ethnic group
Score
Chinese
66.1
Indian
61.3
Bangladeshi
54.4
Mixed
49.4
Pakistani
49.1
All ethnic groups (average)
48.8
Black
48.6
White
47.8
Gypsy/Roma
21.0
Percentage of pupils getting a grade 5 or above in English and maths GCSE (2021/22)[204]
Ethnic group
%
Chinese
80.0
Indian
73.0
Bangladeshi
62.1
Pakistani
51.2
Mixed
49.9
All ethnic groups (average)
49.8
Black
49.4
White
47.9
Gypsy/Roma
8.5
Higher education
There are 71,000 UK-domiciled British Pakistani students in the 2021-22 academic year, this represents 4.2% of all UK-domiciled students.[205] In 2017, approximately 16,480 British Pakistani students were admitted to university, almost a two-fold increase from 8,460 in 2006.[206]
In 2021, 58.4% of British Pakistanis chose to continue their studies at the university level. This was a higher rate than average nationally (44%), and higher than the rate for White British (39%).[207]
Science and mathematics are the most popular subjects at A-Level and degree level among the youngest generation of British Pakistanis, as they begin to establish themselves within the field.[208]
In addition, there are over 10,000 Pakistani international students who enrol and study at British universities and educational institutions each year.[45][209] There are numerous student and cultural associations formed by Pakistani pupils studying at British universities.
Language education
Urdu courses are available in the UK and can be studied at GCSE and A-Level.[64][210] Urdu degrees are offered by several British universities and institutes, while several others are also hoping to offer courses in Urdu, open to established speakers as well as beginners, in the future.[211][212][213][214]
Location has had a great impact on the success of British Pakistanis. The existence of a North-South divide leaves those in the north of England economically depressed, although there is a small concentration of more highly educated Pakistanis living in the suburbs of Greater Manchester and London, as some Pakistani immigrants have taken advantage of the trading opportunities and entrepreneurial environment which exist in major UK cities.[222] Material deprivation and under-performing schools of the inner city have impeded social mobility for many Azad Kashmiris.[222]
British Pakistanis based in large cities have found making the transition into the professional middle class easier than those based in peripheral towns. This is because cities like London, Manchester, Leeds, Liverpool, Newcastle, Glasgow and Oxford have provided a more economically encouraging environment than the small towns in Lancashire and Yorkshire.[35]
On the other hand, the decline in the British textile boom brought about economic disparities for Pakistanis who worked and settled in the smaller mill towns following the 1960s, with properties failing to appreciate enough and incomes having shrunk.[188]
Most of the initial funds for entrepreneurial activities were historically collected by workers in food processing and clothing factories.[223] The funds were often given a boost by wives saving "pin money" and interest-free loans exchanged between fellow migrants. By the 1980s, British Pakistanis began dominating the ethnic and halal food businesses, Indian restaurants, Asian fabric shops, and travel agencies.[222] Other Pakistanis secured ownership of textile manufacturing or wholesale businesses and took advantage of cheap family labour. The once multimillion-pound company Joe Bloggs is an example.
Clothing imports from Southeast Asia began to affect the financial success of these mill-owning Pakistanis in the 1990s. However, some Pakistani families based in the major cities managed to buck this trend by selling or renting out units in their former factories.[222]
In the housing rental market, Pakistani landlords first rented out rooms to incoming migrants, who were mostly Pakistani themselves. As these renters settled in Britain and prospered to the point where they could afford to buy their own homes, non-Asian university students became these landlords' main potential customers. By 2000, several British Pakistanis had established low-cost rental properties throughout England.[222]Aneel Mussarat is an example of a property millionaire. His company, MCR Property Group, specialises in renting apartments to university students in Manchester and Liverpool.
British Pakistanis are most likely to live in owner-occupied Victorian terraced houses of the inner city.[224] In the increasing suburban movement amongst Pakistanis living in Britain,[225] this trend is most conspicuous among children of Pakistani immigrants.[226] Pakistanis tend to place a strong emphasis on owning their own home and have one of the highest rates of home ownership in the UK at 73%, slightly higher than that of the White British population.[227]
Many first generation British Pakistanis have invested in second homes or holiday homes in Pakistan.[228] They have purchased houses next to their villages and sometimes even in more expensive cities, such as Islamabad and Lahore. Upon reaching the retirement age, a small number hand over their houses in Britain to their offspring and settle in their second homes in Pakistan.[222] This relocation multiplies the value of their British state pensions. Investing savings in Pakistan has limited the funding available for investing in their UK businesses. In comparison, other migrant groups, like South Asian migrants from East Africa, have benefited from investing only in Britain.[222]
Economic status
Statistics from the 2011 census show that Pakistani communities in England, particularly in the North and the Midlands, are disproportionately affected by low pay, unemployment and poverty.[229][230] 32% cent of British Pakistanis live in a deprived neighbourhood, compared to 10% for England overall.[231] Consequently, many fall within the welfare net.[232] In Scotland, however, Pakistanis were less likely to live in a deprived area than the average.[233] Sir Anwar Pervez, owner of one of the UK's largest companies, the Bestway group,[234] and his family have assets of £1.364 billion, placing them 125th on the Sunday Times Rich List 2021.[235]
In addition, several wealthy Pakistanis, including prominent politicians, own millions of pounds' worth of assets and properties in the UK, such as holiday homes.[236][237][238][239] In 2017, 19.8% of Pakistani secondary school students were eligible for free school meals, compared to 13.1% of White British pupils. Amongst pupils in Key Stage 1, 14.1% of both Pakistani and White British children were eligible for free school meals.[240]
Research from the Resolution Foundation published in 2020 has found that British Pakistanis hold the third highest median total household net wealth among major British ethnic groups at £232,200.[241]
Ethnic group
Median total household net wealth (2016–18)
Indian
£347,400
White British
£324,100
Pakistani
£232,200
Black Caribbean
£125,400
Bangladeshi
£124,700
Other White
£122,800
Chinese
£73,500
Black African
£28,400
Employment
In 2004, one in seven British Pakistanis worked as a taxi driver, cab driver or chauffeur.[41]
Since 2004, the combined Pakistani and Bangladeshi communities have consistently had the lowest rate of employment out of all ethnic groups, although this figure has improved from 44% in 2004 to 61% in 2022. This is in comparison to the nationwide figures of 73% in 2004 and 76% in 2022.[242] In 2022, the combined group were also the most likely ethnic group to be economically inactive with 33% of 16 to 64-year-olds out of work and not looking for employment, rising to 48% for Pakistani and Bangladeshi women compared to 24% of White British women.[243] According to figures in the same year for 16-64 year olds, the combined group also had the lowest employment figure at 61% and the largest employment discrepancy by gender at 75% for men and 46% for women.[244] The average hourly pay for the combined group in the same year was the lowest out of all ethnicity groups at £12.03.[245] In 2019, before the two ethnicities were combined, Pakistanis had the lowest pay out of all ethnicities with a slightly lower median hourly pay than Bangladeshis at £10.55 compared to £10.58.[246] In the 2017 to 2020 period, 47% of the community lived in households classified as low income (after housing costs), the second highest proportion after Bangladeshis, compared to 22% of all households in the UK.[247]
The Economist has argued that the lack of a second income in households was "the main reason" why many Bangladeshi and Pakistani families live below the poverty line and the resulting high proportion reliant on welfare payments from the government.[248]
Data from the 2011 Census shows British Pakistanis had one of the lowest employment rates amongst other ethnic groups and a lower than average employment rate in all regions of England and Wales, reported at 49%. The statistics also showed Pakistanis had one of the highest rates of unemployment at 12%.
Around 60% of British Pakistani women were economically inactive and 15% were unemployed in 2011.[249] Amongst older employed Pakistani women, many work as packers, bottlers, canners, fillers, or sewing machinists.[41] In 2012, Pakistani women began to surge into the labour market, although this was noted as many merely moving from economic inactivity to unemployment.[248]
The latest figures from the Office for National Statistics show British Pakistanis are far more likely to be self-employed than any other ethnic group, at 25%.[250] Traditionally, many British Pakistanis have been self-employed, with many working in the transport industry or family-run businesses in the retail sector.[4]
The latest available data from the Labour Force Survey show that in the fourth quarter of 2019, the employment rate for British Pakistanis stood at 57% and unemployment rates were 7%.[251]
According to General Medical Council statistics,[when?] 14,213 doctors from Pakistan are registered in the UK,[252] and 2,100 dentists of Pakistani ethnicity were registered with the General Dental Council as of 2017.[253] Pakistani-origin doctors make up 4.6% of all doctors in the UK[252] and Pakistan is one of the largest source countries of foreign young doctors in the UK.[254]
Social class
The majority of British Pakistanis are considered to be working or middle class.[255] According to the 2011 Census, 16.5% of Pakistanis living in England and Wales were in managerial or professional occupations, 19.3% in intermediate occupations, and 23.5% in routine or manual occupations. The remaining 24.4% and 16.3% were classified under never worked or long-term unemployed and full-time students.[256]
Whilst British Pakistanis living in the Midlands and the North are more likely to be unemployed or suffer from social exclusion,[32] some Pakistani communities in London and the south-east are said to be "fairly prosperous".[49] It was estimated that, in 2001, around 45% of British Pakistanis living in both inner and outer London were middle class.[257]
Media
Cinema
Notable films that depict the lives of British Pakistanis include My Beautiful Laundrette, which received a BAFTA award nomination, and the popular East is East which won a BAFTA award, a British Independent Film Award and a London Film Critics' Circle Award. The Infidel looked at a British Pakistani family living in East London,[258] and depicted religious issues and the identity crisis facing a young member of the family. The film Four Lions looked at issues of religion and extremism. It followed British Pakistanis living in Sheffield in the North of England. The sequel to East is East, called West is West, was released in the UK on 25 February 2011.[259]
Citizen Khan is a sitcom developed by Adil Ray which is based on a British Pakistani family in Sparkhill, Birmingham, dubbed the "capital of British Pakistan".[260] The soap opera EastEnders also features many British Pakistani characters.[261] Pakistani Lollywood films have been screened in British cinemas.[262][263] Indian Bollywood films are also shown in British cinemas and are popular with many second generation British Pakistanis and British Asians.[264]
Television
BBC has news services in Urdu and Pashto.[265][266]
In 2005, the BBC showed an evening of programmes under the title Pakistani, Actually, offering an insight into the lives of Pakistanis living in Britain and some of the issues faced by the community.[267][268] The executive producer of the series said, "These documentaries provide just a snapshot of contemporary life among British Pakistanis—a community who are often misunderstood, neglected or stereotyped."[267]
The Pakistani channels of GEO TV, ARY Digital and many others are available to watch on subscription. These channels are based in Pakistan and cater to the Pakistani diaspora, as well as anyone of South Asian origin. They feature news, sports and entertainment, with some channels broadcast in Urdu/Hindi.
The BBC Asian Network is a radio station available across the entire UK and is aimed at Britons of South Asian origin under 35 years of age.[271] Apart from this popular station, there are many other national radio stations for or run by the British Pakistani community, including Sunrise and Kismat Radio of London.
Regional British Pakistani stations include Asian Sound of Manchester, Radio XL and Apni Awaz of Bradford and Sunrise Radio Yorkshire which based in Bradford.[272] These radio stations generally run programmes in a variety of South Asian languages.
Print
The Pakistani newspaper the Daily Jang has the largest circulation of any daily Urdu-language newspaper in the world.[273] It is sold at several Pakistani newsagents and grocery stores across the UK. Urdu newspapers, books and other periodical publications are available in libraries which have a dedicated Asian languages service.[274] Examples of British-based newspapers written in English include the Asian News (published by Trinity Mirror) and the Eastern Eye. These are free weekly newspapers aimed at all British Asians.[275][276]
British Pakistanis involved in print media include Sarfraz Manzoor, who is a regular columnist for The Guardian,[277] one of the largest and most popular newspaper groups in the UK. Anila Baig is a feature writer at The Sun, the biggest-selling newspaper in the UK.[278]
British Pakistanis are represented in politics at all levels. In 2019 there were fifteen British Pakistani MPs in the House of Commons.[287] Notable members have included Shadow Secretary of State for Justice Sadiq Khan[288] and Home Secretary, Sajid Javid,[289] described by The Guardian as a 'rising star' in the Tory party.[290]The Guardian stated that, "The treasury minister is highly regarded on the right and would be the Tories' first Muslim leader", whereas The Independent said he could become the next Chancellor of the Exchequer,[291] which he did in July 2019.[292] The 2019 United Kingdom general election saw a record number of British Pakistani candidates.[293]
In 2007, 257 British Pakistanis were serving as elected councillors or mayors in Britain.[304] British Pakistanis make up a sizeable proportion of British voters and are known to make a difference in elections, both local and national.[305] They are much more active in the voting process, with 67% voting in the last general elections of 2005, compared to just over 60% for the country.[306]
Some of the most influential names in Pakistani politics are known to have studied, lived or exiled in the UK.[313] London, in particular, has long served as a hub of Pakistani political activities overseas.[313][314][315][316] The British Azad Kashmiri community has a strong culture of diaspora politics, playing a significant role in advocating the settlement of the Kashmir conflict and raising awareness of human rights abuses in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir.[317][318][319] Much of Pakistani lobbying and intelligence operations in the UK are focused on this key diaspora issue.[320]
Labour Party
The Labour Party has traditionally been the natural choice for many British Pakistanis. The Labour Party are said to be more dependent on votes from British Pakistanis than the Conservative Party.[321] British Pakistani support for Labour reportedly fell because of party's decision to take part in the Iraq War,[322] when a substantial minority of Muslim voters switched from Labour to the Liberal Democrats.[323] A 2005 poll carried out by ICM Research (ICM) showed that 40% of British Pakistanis intended to vote for Labour in 2010, compared to 5% for the Conservative Party and 21% for the Liberal Democrats.[324] However, according to survey research, 60% of Pakistani voters voted Labour in the subsequent general election, held in 2010[325] and this figure rose to more than 90% in the 2017 general election.[323]
Some commentators have argued the Conservative Party has become increasingly popular with some British Pakistanis, as they become more affluent.[330] However, analysis of a representative sample of ethnic Pakistani voters in the 2010 general election from the Ethnic Minority British Election Study shows that 13% of them voted Conservative, compared to 60% Labour and 25% Liberal Democrat.[325]
The proportion of British Pakistanis voting Conservative fell in the 2015 and 2017 general elections.[323]Michael Wade, chairman of the Conservative Friends of Pakistan, has argued that while polls have shown that only one third of British Pakistani men would never vote Conservative, "the fact is that the Conservative Party has not been successful in reaching out to the British Pakistani community; and so they, in turn, have not looked to the Conservative Party as the one that represents their interests".[331]
The Conservative Friends of Pakistan aims to develop and promote the relationship between the Conservative Party, the British Pakistani community and Pakistan.[332]David Cameron opened a new gym aimed at British Pakistanis in Bolton after being invited by Amir Khan in 2009.[333] Cameron also appointed Tariq Ahmad, Baron Ahmad of Wimbledon, a Mirpuri-born politician, a life peerage. Multi-millionaire Sir Anwar Pervez, who claims to have been born Conservative,[334] has donated large sums to the party.[335][336] Sir Anwar's donations have entitled him to become a member of the influential Conservative Leader's Group.[337]
Shortly after becoming the Conservative Party leader, Cameron spent two days living with a British Pakistani family in Birmingham.[338] He said the experience taught him about the challenges of cohesion and integration.[338]
Sajjad Karim is a member of the European Parliament. He represents North West England through the Conservative Party. In 2005, Karim became the founding chairman of the European Parliament Friends of Pakistan Group. He is also a member of the Friends of India and Friends of Bangladesh groups.[339]Rehman Chishti became the new Conservative Party MP for Gillingham and Rainham.[340] Sayeeda Warsi was promoted chairman of the Conservative Party by the prime minister shortly after the 2010 UK general election. Warsi was the shadow minister for community cohesion when the Conservatives were in opposition. She is the first Muslim and first Asian woman to serve in a British cabinet. Both of Warsi's grandfathers served with the British Army in the Second World War.[341]
Liberal Democrats, Scottish National Party and Others
Salma Yaqoob is the former leader of the left-wing, anti-Zionist Respect Party. The small party has seen success in areas such as Sparkbrook in Birmingham and Newham in London, where there are large Pakistani populations. Qassim Afzal is a senior Liberal Democrat politician of Pakistani origin. In 2009 he accompanied the then Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom to meetings with Pakistan's president, Asif Ali Zardari.[344] There has never been a Pakistani MP in the Liberal Democrats.
The chance of a Pakistani being racially attacked in a year is greater than 4%—the highest rate in the country, along with British Bangladeshis—though this has come down from 8% a year in 1996.[345]
Police recorded figures also showed that in 2018–19, the highest proportion of victims (18%) of racially aggravated hate crimes were of Pakistani ethnicity.[346] Between 2005 and 2012, just over half of the victims of Islamophobic incidents in London were Pakistani in ethnic appearance.[347]
The term "Paki" is often used as a racist slur to describe Pakistanis and can also be directed towards other non-Pakistani South Asians. There have been some attempts by the youngest generation of British Pakistanis to reclaim the word and use it in a non-offensive way to refer to themselves, though this remains controversial.[348]
In 2001, riots occurred in Bradford. Two reasons given for the riots were social deprivation and the actions of extreme right wing groups such as the National Front (NF).[349] The Anti-Nazi League held a counter protest to a proposed march by the NF leading to clashes between police and the local South Asian population, with the majority of those being involved being of Pakistani descent.[350][351]
These attacks were usually referred to as either "Paki-bashing" or "skinhead terror", with the attackers usually called "Paki-bashers" or "skinheads".[352] According to Robert Lambert, "influential sections of the national and local media" did "much to exacerbate" anti-immigrant and anti-Pakistani rhetoric.[355] The attacks were also fuelled by systemic failures of state authorities, which included under-reporting of racist attacks, the criminal justice system not taking racist attacks seriously, and racial harassment by police.[352]
Perception by the majority population
As per a 2013 YouGov research, British Pakistanis are seen to not integrate into society as well when compared to immigrants of African or Eastern European background but conversely they're also perceived to be "as hard-working as well as more entrepreneurial and less likely to be either leaning on the state or a drain on the economy than the other groups", and also "as less threatening in general and less corrupt than Eastern Europeans."[356]
^Fisher, Michael Herbert (2006). Counterflows to Colonialism: Indian Traveller and Settler in Britain 1600–1857. Orient Blackswan. pp. 111–9, 129–30, 140, 154–6, 160–8, 172. ISBN81-7824-154-4.
^ abEmber, Melvin; Ember, Carol R.; Skoggard, Ian (2005). Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World. Volume I: Overviews and Topics; Volume II: Diaspora Communities, Volume 1. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN9780306483219.
^Fox, Susan (2015). The New Cockney: New Ethnicities and Adolescent Speech in the Traditional East End of London. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN9781137503992.
^ abcdDepartment for Communities and Local Government. "The Pakistani Muslim Community in England"(PDF). Department for Communities and Local Government. pp. 5–11 (6), 36–41. Archived from the original(PDF) on 19 September 2012. Retrieved 2 November 2010. In London the community is more mixed and includes comparable numbers of Punjabis, Pathans and Kashmiris. There are also small communities of Sindhis and Balochis in London.
^Peach, Ceri (2005). "Britain's Muslim population: An overview". In Abbas, Tahir (ed.). Muslim Britain: Communities under Pressure. London: Zed Books. pp. 18–30. ISBN1-84277-449-2.
^Gishkori, Zahid (30 July 2015). "Karachi has witnessed 43% decrease in target killing: Nisar". The Express Tribune. Retrieved 3 August 2017. As many as 116,308 Afghan nationals are living as immigrants in the country, higher than any other country", Nisar told the House. Besides Afghans, 52,486 Americans, 79,447 British citizens and 17,320 Canadians are residing in the country, the interior minister added.
^"Brits Abroad". BBC News. 6 December 2006. Retrieved 14 October 2014.
^"Glasgow 'invented' Tikka Masala". BBC News. BBC. 21 July 2009. Retrieved 19 May 2017. Mr Sarwar claimed the dish owed its origins to the culinary skills of Ali Ahmed Aslam, proprietor of the Shish Mahal restaurant in Park Road in the west end of the city. He is said to have prepared a sauce using spices soaked in a tin of condensed tomato soup after a customer said his meal was too dry.
^Godeau, Lucie (2 August 2009). "Chicken tikka masala claims its origins in Scotland". Sydney Morning Herald. Agence France Presse. Retrieved 19 May 2017. "Chicken tikka masala was invented in this restaurant, we used to make chicken tikka, and one day a customer said, 'I'd take some sauce with that, this is a bit dry'," said Ahmed Aslam Ali, 64, founder of Shish Mahal. "We thought we'd better cook the chicken with some sauce. So from here we cooked chicken tikka with the sauce that contains yogurt, cream, spices.
^"Prolegomena to the Study of Pakistani English and Pakistani Literature in English" (1989), Alamgir Hashmi, Pakistani Literature (Islamabad), 2:1 1993.
^Sökefeld, Martin (6 June 2016). "The Kashmiri Diaspora in Britain and the Limits of Political Mobilisation". Migration - Networks - Skills. transcript Verlag. pp. 23–46. doi:10.1515/9783839433645-002. ISBN978-3-8394-3364-5. Individual migration from what later became AJK started already before the Subcontinent's partition and independence. From the 1950s, chain migration developed, transferring large portions of the population of southern AJK (today's districts of Mirpur, Kotli and Bhimber), resulting in quite concentrated settlements of Kashmiris in Britain, especially in Birmingham, Bradford, different towns in Lancashire and around London.
^Snedden, Christopher (15 September 2015). Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris. Oxford University Press. pp. 21–24. ISBN978-1-84904-622-0. Confusingly, the term 'Kashmiri' also has wider connotations and uses. Most people in Azad Kashmir call themselves 'Kashmiris' This is despite most Azad Kashmiris not being of Kashmiri ethnicity. Indeed, most of their ethnic, cultural and historical links have been, and remain, with areas to the south and west of Azad Kashmir, chiefly Punjab and the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), now called Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province. Nevertheless, Azad Kashmiris call themselves Kashmiris because of their region's historical connections with the former princely state of J&K that popularly was called Kashmir.
^Jabeen, Nazish; Malik, Sajid (June 2014), "Consanguinity and Its Sociodemographic Differentials in Bhimber District, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan", Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition, 32 (2): 301–313, PMC4216966, PMID25076667, Kashmiri population in the northeast of Pakistan has strong historical, cultural and linguistic affinities with the neighbouring populations of upper Punjab and Potohar region of Pakistan.
^Ballard, Roger (2 March 1991), "Kashmir Crisis: View from Mirpur"(PDF), Economic and Political Weekly, 26 (9/10): 513–517, JSTOR4397403, archived from the original(PDF) on 4 March 2016, retrieved 19 July 2020, ... they are best seen as forming the eastern and northern limits of the Potohari Punjabi culture which is otherwise characteristic of the upland parts of Rawalpindi and Jhelum Districts
^Skutsch, Carl (7 November 2013). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. Routledge. p. 694. ISBN978-1-135-19388-1. Kashmiris from Azad Kashmir (the Mirpur and Kotli districts) relocated to Britain in the 1950s, especially to the towns of Bradford, Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, and Luton, on account of the availability of unskilled work.
^Monika Böck; Aparna Rao (2000). Culture, Creation, and Procreation: Concepts of Kinship in South Asian Practice. Berghahn Books. pp. 81–157. ISBN1-57181-912-6. ... Kalesh kinship is indeed orchestrated through a rigorous system of patrilineal descent defined by lineage endogamy
^Iqbal, Jamshed; Zaman, Amir; Ghafar, Abdul (June 2013). "Inclusion of Pashto in O'Level Cambridge Education". Department of Education, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Pakistan.
^Ceri Peach (23 August 1996). "A question of collar". timesshighereducation.co.uk. Retrieved 26 December 2010.
^Phillips, D., Davis, C. and Ratcliffe, P. (2007), British Asian narratives of urban space, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 32: 217–234. ISSN0020-2754
^ ab"East of Edgware". The Economist. 7 June 2014. Retrieved 12 April 2015. London has a long tradition of hosting Pakistani politicians who have left their homeland in a hurry. The usual form is for ousted leaders to set up shop in one of the city's posher neighbourhoods, rail against the incumbent regime in Islamabad and head home in triumph when the time is right. The formula worked well for Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif (though it failed for Pervez Musharraf, a former dictator, now embroiled in a treason trial after foolishly returning last year).
^Tahir, Zulqernain (30 May 2014). "Tahirul Qadri, PML-Q leaders meet in London today in bid to form anti-govt alliance". Dawn. Retrieved 12 April 2015. London has become the hub of Pakistan's political activities as the Chaudhrys of Gujrat and Dr Tahirul Qadri meet there on Friday to kick off efforts to forge a 'grand anti-government alliance'.
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United Kingdom: 1,587,819 – 2.7% (2021)[1]
England: 1,570,285 – 2.8% (2021)[2]
Scotland: 49,381 – 0.9% (2011)[1]
Wales: 17,534 – 0.6% (2021)[2]
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