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((Short description|Nomenclature of academic degree in various countries))
((Multiple issues|
((Copy edit|date=March 2023|for=to improve cohesion and grammar))
((more citations needed|date=April 2014))
))

[[File:Vitnemaal candjur.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Candidatus juris diploma from the [[University of Oslo]] ]]

'''Candidate''' (Latin ''candidatus'' or ''candidata'') is the name of various [[academic degree]]s, which are today mainly awarded in [[Scandinavia]]. The degree title was phased out in much of Europe through the 1999 [[Bologna Process]], which has re-formatted academic degrees in Europe.

The degrees are now, or were once, awarded in the [[Nordic countries]], the [[Soviet Union]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[Belgium]]. In Scandinavia and the Nordic countries, a higher professional-level degree usually corresponds to 5–7 years of studies. In the Soviet states, a research degree was roughly equivalent to a [[Doctor of Philosophy]] degree. In the Netherlands and Belgium, it was an undergraduate first-cycle degree roughly comparable with the [[bachelor's degree]].

==Etymology and origins==
The term is derived from the Latin ''candida'', meaning white.<ref>((cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/candidate|title=Candidate|publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]]|accessdate=2012-11-07))</ref> In [[Ancient Rome]], men running for political office would typically wear [[toga]]s chalked and bleached to be bright white at [[public speaking|speeches]], [[debate]]s, [[Political convention|conventions]], and other public [[ceremony|functions]].<ref>((cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=candidate&searchmode=none|title=Candidate|publisher=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]]|accessdate=2012-11-07))</ref> The term ''candidate'' thus came to mean someone who seeks an office of some sort.<ref>((cite encyclopedia|year=1912|title=Magistratus|encyclopedia=[[Nordisk familjebok]]|location=Stockholm|url=https://runeberg.org/nfbq/0256.html|editor-last=Westrin|editor-first=Th.|volume=17: Lux–Mekanik|page=471|language=sv))</ref><ref>((cite book|last=Ørsted|first=Peter|title=Dagligliv i det remorse imperium|publisher=[[Gyldendal]]|year=1991|isbn=87-01-72010-4|location=Copenhagen|pages=153|language=da))</ref>

Today, the degrees continue to be referred to by their Latin title, with both male and female recipients of candidate degrees being called ''candidates''. The degree titles are typically abbreviated; for example, a ''Candidatus juris'' is commonly referred to as ''cand.jur.''

== Use by region ==

===Scandinavia===
In Scandinavia, the term was introduced in the early 18th century and initially referred to the higher degrees in [[theology]], [[law]], and [[medicine]]. A candidate's degree in the relevant field (e.g., Candidate of Law) was a requirement for appointment to higher offices in the state administration (''embedded''), including as priests, judges, other state officials, and doctors. In Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, the term "candidate" was eventually used for higher professional academic degrees, usually awarded after around 5–7 years of studies. In Norway, only a few Candidate's degrees (such as Candidate of Theology, Candidate of Medicine, and Candidate of Psychology) are still awarded, while in Denmark and Sweden, all Candidate's degrees are retained.

In Denmark, educational reforms began in 1993 to make [[Bachelor's degree|bachelor's]] and [[master's degree]]s commonly available as a two-step alternative to the Candidate's degree. Despite these reforms, the candidate degree was regarded as the standard academic qualification well into the 21st century.<ref name=":1">((Cite journal|last=Thomsen|first=Jens-Peter|date=2023|title=Moving to opportunity: Student trajectories in the post-Bologna university system in Denmark|journal=[[European Educational Research Journal]]|volume=22|issue=2|pages=146–169 |doi=10.1177/14749041211046748|s2cid=242034812 |url=https://osf.io/7ctmb/ ))</ref> In 2010, the majority of students completing the required amount of studies necessary for a bachelor's degree continued with their studies to be awarded a candidate's degree, or equivalent, instead. Because most students continue to achieve this level of study, the labor market in Denmark does not respect bachelor's degrees as a first-cycle degree.<ref>((Cite journal|last=Sin|first=Cristina|date=2012|title=The Bologna master degree in search of an identity|journal=[[European Journal of Higher Education]]|volume=2|issue=2–3|pages=178–180|doi=10.1080/21568235.2012.702437|s2cid=143997574 ))</ref> Many institutions in Denmark which no longer offer the candidate degree as a result of the Bologna Process continue to offer joint bachelor-masters programs which last five years, just as the candidate degree had.<ref name=":1" />

In Norway, the [[Quality Reform]] of 2003 enacted the nation's compliance with the Bologna process, and most candidates' degrees are no longer awarded for academic qualifications.<ref>((Cite journal|last1=Dysthea|first1=Olga|last2=Webler|first2=Wolff-Dietrich|date=2010|title=Pedagogical Issues from Humboldt to Bologna: The Case of Norway and Germany|journal=[[Higher Education Policy]]|volume=23|issue=2 |pages=254|doi=10.1057/hep.2010.9|s2cid=143574046 ))</ref> A select number of professional programs, however, have been given an exception from the Bologna process, allowing candidates' degrees to continue to be awarded for specific 6-year professional programs. As of 2023, the [[University of Oslo]], for example, awards such professional degrees in medicine (cand.med.), psychology (cand.Psychol.), and theology (cand.theol.).<ref>((Cite web|date=6 July 2022|title=Study programmes|url=https://www.uio.no/english/studies/about/academic-system/studyprogramme/|access-date=8 April 2023|website=[[University of Oslo]]|language=en))</ref>

===The Low Countries===
In the Netherlands and Belgium, the "Candidate's diploma" was an undergraduate first-cycle diploma that the university issued to students who passed their Candidate's examination. After obtaining the certificate, one was entitled to use the academic title "Candidatus" (prenominal abbreviation ''Cand.''). This was the lowest academic degree that could be achieved in these countries, and is roughly comparable with the bachelor's degree from universities (BA or B.Sc.).<ref>((Cite web|date=2011-04-19|title=Welke titel mag ik voeren als ik ben afgestudeerd?|url=https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/hoger-onderwijs/vraag-en-antwoord/onderwerpen/hoger-onderwijs/vraag-en-antwoord/welke-titel-mag-ik-voeren-als-ik-ben-afgestudeerd-of-gepromoveerd|website=Rijksoverheid|language=nl-NL))((Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes ))</ref>

The candidate exam takes place after the student completes a substantial and pre-determined part of his university education, in the case of a five-year or more prolonged course, typically after completion of the third year. Students in a four-year class received the degree at the end of their second or during their third year, depending on the criteria set by the institution. The Candidate's degrees were phased out in the Netherlands in 1982 but have been more-or-less replaced by the bachelor's degree with the introduction of the Bologna Process.

=== Soviet Union ===
((Expand section|date=March 2023))
((main|Candidate of Sciences))
In the [[Soviet Union]], in modern [[Russia]] and in some East European countries  candidate degrees were/are research degrees roughly equivalent to a [[Doctor of Philosophy]].<ref>((Cite book|last=Zemtsov|first=Ilya|title=Encyclopedia of Soviet Life|year=1991|isbn=0887383505|pages=278|publisher=Transaction Publishers |language=en))</ref>

== Degrees ==

=== Candidate of the Arts ===
((anchor|Candidatus magisterii))
A Candidate of the Arts ([[Latin language|Latin]]: ''Candidatus magisterii'' or ''candidate magisterii''; abbreviated as ''cand.mag'') is an academic degree currently awarded in Denmark. The degree is officially translated into English as [[Master of Arts]] and requires five years of studies.<ref name=":0">((Cite web|date=16 December 2013|title=BEK nr 1520: Bekendtgørelse om bachelor- og kandidatuddannelser ved universiteterne (uddannelsesbekendtgørelsen)|url=https://www.retsinformation.dk/Forms/R0710.aspx?id=160853#Kap5|website=Retsinformation|language=da))</ref> It is not to be confused with the [[Magister (degree)|magister's degree]] (''magister artium'' or ''magister Scientiarum''), a degree requiring 7–8 years of studies with a strong emphasis on the scientific thesis, and which is the approximate equivalent of a [[PhD]] degree.<ref>((cite book|last=Dommasnes|first=Liv Helga|url=https://archive.org/details/excavatingwomen00daza|title=Excavating women: a history of women in European archaeology|author2=Else Johansen Kleppe|author3=Gro Mandt|author4=Jenny-Rita Næss|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|isbn=0-415-15760-9|editor=Margarita Díaz-Andreu García and Marie Louise Stig Sørensen|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/excavatingwomen00daza/page/n131 115]|chapter=Women archeologists in retrospect – the Norwegian case|url-access=limited))</ref><ref name="Dommasnes">((cite book|last=Jørgensen|first=Lise Bender|url=https://archive.org/detailsexcavatingwomen00daza|title=Excavating women: a history of women in European archaeology|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|isbn=0-415-15760-9|editor=Margarita Díaz-Andreu García and Marie Louise Stig Sørensen|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/excavatingwomen00daza/page/n247 231]|chapter=The state of Denmark|quote=In recent years, the Anglo-Saxon style degree of PhD has been introduced, and is now replacing the degree of mag. Art. At present, both mag. art. and Ph.D. degrees are around. They are not identical, but their position in the educational system as the degree you take at the end of postgraduate studies is the same.|url-access=limited))</ref>

The degree was initially introduced in Denmark in 1883. For most of its history, the degree usually required between 4 and 5 years of studies.<ref>((Cite book|last1=Raaheim|first1=Kjell|title=Hvilket fag skal jeg velge, hvilken grad kan jeg ta?|last2=Utne|first2=Edmund|publisher=Sigma|year=1985|isbn=9788290373080|location=Bergen|pages=105|language=no))</ref> In its later years, the formal minimum requirement was 3.5 years for the faculties of [[mathematics]] and [[natural sciences]], and 4–4.5 for the faculties of [[humanities]] and [[social sciences]]. Today, the degree is awarded only in humanities and requires five years of studies. The degree was also awarded in Norway beginning in 1920, based on the Danish degree; since 2003, it is no longer awarded.

=== Candidate of Arts and Letters ===
((anchor|Candidatus philologiae))
A Candidate of Arts and Letters (Latin: ''Candidatus philologiae'' or ''Candidata philologiae''; abbreviated as ''cand. philol.'') is an academic degree in Arts and Letters awarded in Denmark. It is considered an entry-level scientific degree for careers in academia (qualifying for positions as assistant professor or lecturer), as doctorates traditionally are awarded later in the job to senior academics.

The degree was once awarded in Norway but had also been phased out by 2007. At the time, it typically required six years of study at Norwegian universities.

=== Candidate of Economics ===
((anchor|Cand.oecon.))
A Candidate of Economics (Latin: ''Candidatus economics'' or ''Candidata economics''; abbreviated as ''cand.oecon.'') is an academic degree in [[economics]] currently awarded in Denmark and formerly in Iceland and Norway. It is roughly equivalent to a [[Master of Economics]].

The degree was introduced in Norway in 1905 as a supplementary academic degree in economics, conferred by the [[Faculty of Law, University of Oslo]] and primarily intended for those already holding a [[cand.jur.]] degree. The degree cand.oecon. Unlike the cand, it did not qualify for the higher civil servant positions. jur. Degree. The program usually lasted two years. In 1934, it became an independent 5-year program in economics. The degree was replaced in Norway by the Bachelor/Master's degree system in 2003.

The degree was first made available at the [[University of Iceland]] in 1964 as a 4-year program in [[Business administration|Business Administration]] at the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration. It was replaced in 1996 by the current bachelor's and master's of science programs.

=== Candidate of Law ===
((anchor|Latin academic degrees in Scandinavia))
A Candidate of Law (Latin: ''candidates juris'' or ''candidate juris''; abbreviated as ''cand.jur.'') is both a graduate law degree awarded to law students in the [[Nordic region]] as well as an "academic status" designation for advanced [[Law school|Law School]] students in [[List of countries and territories where German is an official language|German-speaking countries]].

==== In the Nordic countries ====
The Candidate of Law degree was once awarded in [[Denmark]], [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[Iceland]], [[Norway]] and [[Sweden]]. All Nordic countries—except Denmark—have changed their law degrees from the Candidate to a master's due to the Bologna Process. The application process to study for the degree was highly competitive throughout the Nordic region, as the qualifying exam to practice law could only be taken at a university, where the government officially granted the [[diploma privilege]].

In Denmark, the ''Juridisk kandidateksamen (cand. jur.)'' is obtained after five years of law studies (180 + 120 [[European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System|ECTS]]).<ref>((Cite journal|date=5 March 2020|title=C 72A|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=OJ:C:2020:072A:FULL&from=EN|journal=[[Official Journal of the European Union]]|language=en|volume=63|issn=1977-091X|access-date=2020-12-17|via=[[EUR-Lex]]))</ref> Undergraduate degree is ''Bachelor i jura'' (''bac. jur.'') which usually take three years to complete (180 [[European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System|ECTS]]).<ref>((Cite web|date=2011-03-04|title=Bachelor i jura|url=https://studier.ku.dk/bachelor/jura/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121209052252/http://studier.ku.dk:80/bachelor/jura|archive-date=2012-12-09|access-date=2020-05-10|website=[[University of Copenhagen]]|language=da))</ref>

Before the [[Soviet occupation of Estonia|Soviet occupation]], a post-graduate law degree was "cand.jur." in Estonia. For example, President [[Konstantin Päts]] had the "cand. jur." degree from the [[University of Tartu]].<ref>((Cite web |last=Päts |first=Konstantin |title=Eesti Vabariigi president (EE-RA - ERA.1278) |url=http://www.archivesportaleurope.net/ead-display/-/ead/pl/aicode/EE-RA/type/fa/id/ERA.1278/dbid/C126982346;jsessionid=4DAA63691878B663BA42A5C4E6BF1C29 |access-date=2020-12-17 |website=Archives Portal Europe))((dead link|date=September 2023))</ref> The degree derives from history, Estonia has been for centuries under the influence of Nordic countries, e.g. by being a part of the Danish Kingdom.<ref>((Cite book |title=Danish Medieval History: New Currents |publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press |year=1981 |isbn=9788788073300 |editor-last=Skyum-Nielsen |editor-first=Niels |editor-last2=Lund |editor-first2=Niels))</ref> In Estonia, the current post-graduate law degree is ''Õigusteaduse magister''.<ref>((Cite web |date=23 August 2004 |title=Õppeasutuste activate akadeemiliste roadside nimetuste levels |url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/793983 |access-date=2020-12-17 |website=[[Riigi Teataja]] |language=et))</ref>

Before 2005 Finland had ''Oikeustieteen kandidaatti'', abbreviated OTK (((lang-sv|Juris kandidatexamen)), Jur. kand.) degree. It was replaced by ''Oikeustieteen maisteri'', abbreviated ''OTM'' (((lang-sv|Juris magister)), JM), which is obtained after five years of law studies (180 + 120 [[European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System|ECTS]]). Previously graduated ''OTK'' diploma holders could continue using their previous title.

Formerly, Iceland had the Embættispróf í lögfræði (''cand. jur.)'' degree, but it has been replaced by the ML í lögfræði (''mag. jur.)'' title.<ref>((cite web |title=EA Enska |url=https://www.kls.is/elin-arnadottir-enska |access-date=2020-12-17 |website=Kjarni Lögmannsstofa |language=is))</ref><ref>((cite web |title=Lögfræði |url=https://www.hi.is/logfraedi_0 |url-status=dead |access-date=2020-12-17 |website=[[University of Iceland]] |language=is |archive-date=2021-01-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116054650/https://www.hi.is/logfraedi_0 ))</ref>

The degree was formerly awarded in Norway but was formally replaced in 2003 by the ''Master i Rettsvitenskap'' master's degree, which is obtained after five years of law studies equivalent to 300 [[European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System|ECTS]].<ref>((cite web |title=Rettsvitenskap (jus) (master - 5 år) |url=https://www.uio.no/studier/program/jus/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722060340/http://www.uio.no:80/studier/program/jus/index.html |archive-date=2012-07-22 |access-date=2020-05-10 |website=[[Oslo University]] |language=no))</ref> The last ''cand. jur.'' degrees were awarded in Norway in the spring of 2007.

Before 2010 Sweden had ''Jurist kandidatexamen'' (''jur. kand.'') degree. The former degree was replaced by ''Juristexamen'' and is completed after four-and-a-half years of studying at the average pace (270 [[European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System|ECTS]]). Previously graduated ''jur. kand.'' diploma holders were eligible to continue using their title before and after the Bologna process; the academic degree is split into two different diplomas. Previously, the lower degree was ''Varanotaari'', abbreviated VN (((lang-sv|Vicenotarie))), and current lower degree ''Oikeusnotaari'', shortened ON (((lang-sv|Rättsnotarie)), RN) is awarded after completing three years of study (180 [[European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System|ECTS]]).

==== In Germany, Austria, and Switzerland ====
[[Image:Cand iur.png|thumb|upright|Example of the use of the denomination in the context of a journal publication by an advanced German Law School student (ZJS 2/2010, p. 148)]]
In Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, the term "cand. iur." is a designation used in the academic environment by advanced [[law student]]s.<ref>((cite web|title=Universitätssprache|url=https://www.juristischer-gedankensalat.de/2010/10/08/universitaetssprache-deutsch-deutsch-universitaetssprache/|website=Juristischer Gendankensalat|language=de))</ref> However, it is not an academic degree. Instead, the designation is used in an internal university context or the context of [[publication]]s, for example, contributions to [[academic journal|journals]] or [[anthologies]]. The designation is usually obtained after successful completion of the intermediate examination (after 4 to 6 semesters) and roughly corresponds to the qualification level of a [[Bachelor of Laws]]. Before passing the intermediate examination, law students shall use the designation "stud. iur." (studiosus iuris).

In [[Germany]], law school is completed with the passing of the [[Staatsexamen|First Law Examination]] after 4–6 years of study. Subsequently, graduates can be addressed as "Ref. iur." (Rechtsreferendar) or "Jurist Univ."<ref>((Cite web|date=13 October 2003|title=Japo: § 17 Prüfungsgesamtnote, Abschlusszeugnis und Bezeichnung|url=https://www.gesetze-bayern.de/Content/Document/BayJAPO-17|website=[[Bayerische Staatskanzlei]]|language=de))</ref> Some law faculties also award the academic degrees "Diplom-Jurist",<ref>((Cite web|title=Diplom-Juristin/Diplom-Jurist (Dipl.-Jur.)|url=https://www.uni-saarland.de/en/faculty/r/studium/haeufige-fragen-zum-studiengang-rechtswissenschaft-faq/diplom-juristindiplom-jurist-dipl-jur.html|url-status=dead|website=[[Saarland University]]|language=de|access-date=2023-03-28|archive-date=2021-11-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211128011500/https://www.uni-saarland.de/en/faculty/r/studium/haeufige-fragen-zum-studiengang-rechtswissenschaft-faq/diplom-juristindiplom-jurist-dipl-jur.html))</ref> "Diplom-Jurist (Univ.)"<ref>((Cite web|title=Studienordnung|url=https://www.uni-regensburg.de/Einrichtungen/Verwaltung/Abteilung-I/Abt.I-Kr/Pruefungsord/501jurdpo.htm|url-status=dead|website=[[Regensburg University]]|language=de|access-date=2023-03-28|archive-date=2021-08-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210802003745/https://www.uni-regensburg.de/Einrichtungen/Verwaltung/Abteilung-I/Abt.I-Kr/Pruefungsord/501jurdpo.htm))</ref> or "Mag. iur."<ref>((Cite web|date=9 November 2016|title=Magister iuris/Diplom-Jurist|url=https://jura.uni-koeln.de/alumni/diplom-jurist-magister-iuris|website=[[University of Koln]]|language=de))</ref>

In [[Austria]], the degree program ends with a diploma examination, and the academic degree "Mag. iur." is awarded.<ref>((Cite web|title=Rechtswissenschaften (Diplom)|url=https://studieren.univie.ac.at/studienangebot/bachelor-und-diplomstudien/rechtswissenschaften-diplom-mit-aufnahmeverfahren/|website=[[University of Vienna]]|language=de))</ref>

In [[Switzerland]], the designation "cand. iur. is no longer common since the Bologna reform has changed the degree program to the Bachelor's and Master's system so that the academic degrees "BLaw" (Bachelor of Law) are awarded after three years and "MLaw" (Master of Law) after further two years of study. The academic degree "lic. iur." was abolished during the Bologna reform. In the undergraduate BLaw program, students generally use the designation "stud. our."

=== Candidate of Mathematics and the Natural Sciences ===
((anchor|Candidatus realium))
A Candidate of Mathematics and the Natural Sciences (Latin: ''Candidatus realism'' or ''candidate realism''; abbreviated as ''cand. real.'') is a former academic degree used in Norway and conferred in [[mathematics]] and [[natural sciences]]. It was abolished in 1985. There was originally no set duration for the completion of this degree, although 7–8 years was normal,((citation needed|date=June 2019)) and including a dissertation which usually took between 2 and 4 years to complete.((citation needed|date=June 2019)) As of 1985, the formal requirement amounted to 6 years of studies and dissertation work, although there was a strong tradition for extensive dissertations, leading many students to take longer. The degree is sometimes translated as [[PhD]].<ref>((Cite web|date=5 February 2004|title=Gustav Gaudernack: CV|url=http://www.ous-research.no/home/gaudernack/Group%20members/2798|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321042704/http://www.ous-research.no/home/gaudernack/Group%20members/2798|archive-date=2012-03-21|access-date=2012-05-17|website=[[Oslo University Hospital]]|language=en))</ref>((dubious|Better ref, the translation as PhD is highly unusual as far as I know.|date=June 2019))

=== Candidate of Medicine ===
((Main|Candidate of Medicine))

A Candidate of Medicine (((lang-la|candidatus medicinae)) or ''candidata medicinae''; abbreviated as ''cand. med.'') is an academic degree awarded in Denmark, Iceland, and Norway following a six-year [[medical school]] education. Medical students in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland carry this title during their medical studies before being awarded the degree of Dr. med. (Germany) or Dr. med. univ. (Austria) after defending a doctoral or diploma thesis before a jury. Along with candidate degrees in veterinary medicine, psychology, and theology, it is one of the few Latin degree titles still awarded in Norway.

=== Candidate of Politics ===
((anchor|cand.Candidate of Politics))
A Candidate of Economics (Latin: ''Candidatus politices'' or ''Candidata politices''; abbreviated as ''cand.polit''.) is an academic degree in [[economics]], currently only awarded in Denmark. In Denmark, cand.polit. refers exclusively to the Candidate's economics degree awarded by the [[University of Copenhagen]]. Economics degrees from other Danish universities are known as ''cand. oecon'' and ''cand. merc''.

In Norway, the cand.polit. Was formerly awarded an academic degree in all [[social science]]s, including economics, psychology, sociology, and political science. It normally requires at least six years of study, although many students extend this period. At the time of its abolition, the cand.polit. degree was in practice a two-year or a two-and-a-half-year extension to the four-year [[cand.mag.]] degree or equivalent qualifications.<ref>((cite web|date=10 July 2001|title=The Candidata/Candidatus rerum politicarum (cand. polit.) degree|url=http://www.sv.uio.no/english/academics/degrees/candpolit.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081112070548/http://www.sv.uio.no/english/academics/degrees/candpolit.html|archive-date=12 November 2008|website=[[University of Oslo]]|language=en))</ref> Following the Quality Reform of 2003, it has been replaced by a [[Master of Philosophy]] degree, shortening the nominal study time from six to five years.

=== Candidate of Psychology ===
((anchor|Candidate of Psychology))
A Candidate of Psychology (((lang-la|candidatus/candidata psychologiae)); abbreviated as ''cand. psych'' or ''cand.psychol'') is an academic degree in [[Psychology]] currently awarded in Denmark and Norway. In scope and length, it equals a degree somewhere between a master's and a Psy.D.-degree in clinical psychology.

It was introduced at the [[University of Copenhagen]] in 1944 and at the [[University of Oslo]] in 1948 based on the Danish degree. In Denmark, the degree requires five years of studies, while in Norway, it requires five years of academic studies and a one-year internship as part of the studies. As part of the Bologna Process, the degree in Denmark consists of a three-year bachelor's degree in psychology followed by a two-year master's degree in clinical psychology that gives the right to use the title ''cand.psych.''

In Denmark, the degree is awarded by the [[University of Copenhagen]], [[Aarhus University]], [[University of Southern Denmark]], and [[Aalborg University]]. In Norway the degree is awarded by the [[University of Oslo]], the [[Norwegian University of Science and Technology]], the [[University of Bergen]], and the [[University of Tromsø]].<ref>((Cite web|title=Studieplan for PRPSYK Profesjonsstudiet i psykologi, vår 2016|url=http://www.uib.no/studieprogram/PRPSYK/plan|access-date=2016-05-15|website=[[University of Bergen]]|language=no))</ref>

Although completion of the degree qualifies the holder to apply for a license as a clinical psychologist, it does not in itself authorize the holder to practice clinical psychology. In Norway, after the final exam, those with a cand. Psychol. May apply for and will usually be granted the authorization to practice clinical psychology. In Denmark, two years of supervised practice is required before full approval.

=== Candidate of Science ===
((anchor|Candidate of Science))
A Candidate of Science (Latin: ''Candidatus Scientiarum'' or ''candidata Scientiarum''; abbreviated as ''cand.scient.'') is an academic degree currently awarded in Denmark and formerly awarded in Norway.

In Denmark, cand.scient. It is a higher-level degree awarded as a ''[[Kandidat]]'' (Candidate) degree by Danish universities to graduate students in the mathematics and natural sciences. The study requires 120 [[ECTS grading scale|ECTS]], which normally requires two years of study and a completed bachelor's degree. The title is officially translated to English as ''Master of Science''.<ref name=":0" />

In Norway, cand.scient. It was a higher-level degree awarded in mathematics and natural sciences. It was introduced in 1985, replacing the more rigorous cand. real. degree.((dubious|Cand.real. is six years and cand. sci. 5 years is the bare minimum, and usually six years. CR had a dissertation, CS had research.|date=June 2019)) Completion required 1.5–2 years of study and a completed cand. mag. Degree of 3.5 years.<ref>((cite web|title=Academic system at the University of Oslo|url=http://www.sv.uio.no/english/academics/degrees/candpolit.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020213043545/http://www.uio.no/english/academics/admission/academicsystem.html|archive-date=13 February 2002|website=[[University of Oslo]]|language=en))</ref> In 2003, the cand.scient. degree was replaced in Norway by the ''Master of Science'' degree as part of the adoption of the Bologna Process.<ref>((Cite web|date=21 May 2012|title=Candidatus: akademisk grad|url=https://snl.no/candidatus%2Fakademisk_grad|url-status=dead|access-date=10 May 2016|website=[[Store norske leksikon]]|language=no|archive-date=4 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604230627/https://snl.no/candidatus%2Fakademisk_grad))</ref>

=== Candidate of Theology ===
((anchor|Candidate of Theology))
A Candidate of Theology (Latin: ''Candidatus theologiæ'' or ''Candidata theologiæ''; abbreviated as ''cand. theol.'') is an academic degree awarded after completion of a six-year higher education program in [[theology]] in Iceland, Denmark, and Norway. The title is protected by law in Denmark and Norway. In Denmark, the title is described as equivalent to [[Master of Theology]], while in Norway, it ranks higher. In Norway, it is one of the few candidate degree titles to have remained after the Quality Reform of 2003. It can only be issued by four institutions: [[NLA University College]], the [[University of Oslo]], the [[MF Norwegian School of Theology]], and [[VID Specialized University]].

=== Candidate of Veterinary Medicine ===
((anchor|Cand.med.vet.))
A Candidate of Veterinary Medicine (Latin: ((lang|la|Candidatus/candidata|italic=yes)) ((lang|la|medicinae veterinariae|italic=yes)); abbreviated as ''cand.med.vet'') is an academic degree awarded in [[Scandinavia]]n countries following a 5.5 to 6-year veterinary medical school education. Equivalent degrees in other countries qualify a student to practice as a veterinarian, such as a [[Bachelor of Veterinary Science|Master of Veterinary Science]].

The degree is awarded by the [[Norwegian University of Life Sciences]] in Norway, the [[University of Copenhagen]] in Denmark, and the [[Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences]] in Sweden—the only educational institutions in the Scandinavian countries to offer the veterinary degree. In Norway, the title is one of the few candidate degrees that has continued to be awarded after the Quality Reform 2003.

== See also ==
* [[Sivilingeniør|siv.ing.]] (engineering)
* [[Siviløkonom|siv.ek.]] (management)

==References==
((reflist))

((Authority control))

[[Category:Academic degrees]]
[[Category:Master's degrees]]
[[Category:Academic degrees of Denmark]]
[[Category:Academic degrees of Norway]]

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