Auspicious ornament in Chinese textile and clothing
Chinese auspicious ornaments in textile and clothing refers to any form of Chinese auspicious ornaments, which are used to decorate various forms of Chinese textile and clothing (including Hanfu and Qizhuang), fashion accessories, and footwear in China since the ancient times.[1][2] Chinese auspicious ornaments form part of Chinese culture[2] and hold symbolic meanings.[1] In ancient China, auspicious ornaments were often either embroidered or woven into textile and clothing.[1] They are also used on religious and ritual clothing (e.g. Daojiao fushi which is Taoist clothing[3]: 101 and Chinese Buddhist clothing) and in Xifu, Chinese opera costumes.[4] Auspicious symbols and motifs continue to be used in present day China in industries, such as home textiles and clothing; they are also used in modern design packaging and interior design.[5] Some of these Chinese auspicious ornaments were also culturally appropriated by European countries during the era of Chinoiserie, where they became decorative patterns on fashionable chinoiserie fashion and textiles.[6]
Cultural significance
Chinese auspicious patterns and motifs have profound meanings and are rich in forms; these reflect the desires and yearning of the ancient Chinese to pursue a better life.[5] Chinese auspicious ornaments are typically decorations of Chinese cultural origins which are rooted in Confucianism, Taoism, Chinese Buddhism beliefs, in Chinese mythology and cosmology and concepts, as well from Buddhist visual arts and from the natural flora and fauna in China.[1][2] Throughout Chinese history, the use of Chinese embroideries on textile, clothing, and footwear also reflected and expressed the subtle changes in aesthetic concepts, cultural traditions, ethics and morals of the Chinese people throughout the millennia.[7]
Usage
Common items
Chinese auspicious symbols and patterns were used on wedding bedding textiles.[5] They were also used to decorate Chinese fragrant sachet (e.g. Qingyang sachet) and Chinese purses (hebao).
Garments and clothing accessories
Clothing and colour in China also played an important role in representing its wearer's identity, rank, and culture.[1] Clothing which were decorated with Chinese dragons and cosmological symbols, rank badges were typically symbol of status of the ruling class in ancient China.[1]
List of garment and foot wear items decorated with Chinese auspicious ornaments
Emperor wearing mianfu decorated with the Twelve ornaments, Ming dynasty.
The Twelve ornaments are one of the oldest motifs in China.[11]: 71 They originated in the Western Zhou dynasty and was a group of highly auspicious ancient Chinese symbols and designs, signifying authority and power.[12][11]: 71 They were typically embroidered on imperial clothing,[13]: 281 [12] and were used as decoration on textile fabrics.[12]
Their use on clothing have been recorded in the Shangshu Yiji; since then, they have continuously been used.[12][14] The system of clothing patterns was however established in the Han dynasty, where the types and the number of ornaments was regulated based on a person's ranks.[12] In the Sui dynasty, the twelve ornaments were reserved for the Emperor exclusively; Emperor Yang Sui established a system which defined the exact location of these ornaments on the imperial robes.[12][note 3] This system continued in the Ming dynasty.[12][note 4] The system was changed in the Qing dynasty when the Manchu established their own clothing system.[note 5] The emperor wore all twelve ornaments on his clothing.[11]: 71
Cosmic universe as personified by the Emperor, it is an unending source of pardon and love
Mountains (山, shān)
The emperor’s ability to rule earth and water, symbolizing stability and tranquility
Chinese dragon (龍, lóng)
Adaptability and strength
Pheasant (華蟲, huá chóng)
Peace and refinement.
A colourful pheasant
Two cups (宗彝, zōng yí)
Imperial loyalty, also symbolizes the virtue of filial piety
A pair of sacrificial goblet used in ancient sacrifice; one of the cup is decorated with the motif of a monkey (symbolizes wisdom and cleverness) while the other is decorated with the motif of a tiger (symbolizes authority, courage, and bold spirit).
Zao (藻, zǎo)
symbol of the emperor’s leadership, represents brightness and purity (noble and pure conduct)
A spray of pondweed.
Fire (火, huǒ)
Represents the emperors' intellectual brilliance; also symbolizes summer solstice
Upward pattern of a fire emblem, symbolized that the emperor led its people in making positive efforts
Grain of rice (粉米, fěn mǐ)
Symbolize nourishment and the country’s agriculture, and also symbolizes that the emperor is the mainstay for the people.
Axe (黼, fǔ)
The Axe stands for “cut-off”; i.e. the emperor’s power to act decisively
Figure 亞 (黻, fú)
Represents collaboration and the power of the emperor to make a clear distinction between right and wrong
It is a bow-shaped sign
Bagua
Bagua are also used to decorate clothing and textiles,[10] including in Xifu.[4] Bagua are believed to be derived from the markings on the back of a tortoise shell after it had been placed on sacrificial fire.[4]
Wealth and success.[15]: 123 The pearl regularly appears on textiles and rank badge.[15]: 123 By the mid-Qing dynasty, the pearl evolved into the flaming pearl,[15]: 123 which represents the sun, wisdom, power, and an imperial treasure.[16]: 132
Double lozenges (方勝, "fāngshèng")
Happiness in marriage and counteracts maleficent influences.
The eight emblems of the Immortals are typically eight items representing the Eight Immortals and their powers can also appear on clothing and textile.[17][1] These motifs were typically used by taoists.[11]: 71
Type
Attributes
Images
Fan
Attributes of the fan of Zhong Liquan.
Lotus flower
Attributes of the lotus of He Xiangu.
Peach
Bamboo
Gourd with medicine
Attributes of the double gourd of Li Tieguai.
Basket of flowers
Attributes of the flower basket of Lan Caihe
Musical instruments
Two castanets
Attributes of the castanets of Cao Guojiu.
Flute
Attributes of the flute of Han Xiangzi
Ashtamangala/ Eight Sacred Buddhist Symbols
The Ashtamangala can also appear on clothing, such as the dragon robes of the Qing dynasty.[1] These motifs were typically used by buddhists.[11]: 71
Clouds, also referred as auspicious clouds (xiangyun 祥云), are the symbols of good fortune and happiness,[18] as well as a good omen of peace and the symbol of heavens.[17] Clouds designs have been used in artworks as early as the Eastern Zhou dynasty.[19] in the ancient times, auspicious clouds were of associated with deities and good fortune.[19]
Mountains and rocks
Rocks which represents the mountain, Ming dynasty.
Mountains were symbolism of stability, greatness, and stable governance.[12]
Mountains are also one of the twelve ornaments which are embroidered on the Imperial robes.[12] The rock found in the bottom-centre of the Qing dragon robes, represents the sacred mountain (山, shān), one of the Twelve ornaments.[1]
Stars and constellation
Stars were typically represented by small circles.[12] When several stars (circles) are connected with lines, they became a constellation.[12]
Sun
Sun on a rank badge represents the Emperor.
On the Qing dynasty rank badge (buzi), the sun disk is typically depicted as a red disc, which represents the emperor.[17][20]
In the Qing dynasty, animals, birds and creatures on a rank badges need to face the sun disc as symbol of loyalty to the Emperor.[17]
Xingchen/ Three stars
Xingchen (星辰), is depicted as several small circle, symbolizes the indefinite Universe.[12] The number 3 has the meaning of having made everything and formed the beginning of things; this belief comes from Laozi, who said that the universe made the original matter of the Earth.[12]
Chrysanthemum flowers symbolize longevity and autumn season.[2][17] They could be used to decorate the garments of women.[21]
Lotus flowers
Lotus flowers are symbols of purity and fruitfulness.[9] Double lotus are wishes for blessing marriage and harmony.[5]
Peach blossoms
Peach blossoms are symbols of spring season and happiness.[17]
Peony flowers
Peony flowers are symbols of prosperity,[22] wealth, and honour;[5] they also a symbol of spring and feminine beauty.[4] Peonies are often used on Chinese women's clothing.[4]
Plum blossoms
Plum blossoms are symbol of winter season as it blooms in the cold.[17] They are also one of the most famous flowers in China and are common perceived as a symbol of longevity.[4] It is used as decoration to decorate Xifu, Chinese opera costumes as it is an indicator of wisdom and feminine charm.[4]
Xiaolunhua or falunhua
Xiaolunhua (also known as falunhua) motifs decorating the diyi of the Song and Ming dynasty empresses.
Xiaolunhua or falunhua, are motifs used to decorate the falunhua of the Song and Ming dynasty empresses.[note 7]
Seeds
Lotus seeds were auspicious patterns, which were used to embroider Chinese cloth shoes, such as xiuhuaxie (Chinese: 绣花鞋; lit. 'embroidered shoes'); they were symbol of the birth of a child.[23]
Fruits
The combination of longevity peaches, bergamot, and pomegranate represents multiple children and longevity.[5]
Gourds
Gourd embroidery
A gourd is a symbol of fertility.[17] Doubles gourds are associated with immortals and deities.[17]
Peaches
Textile with peaches motif
A peach is a symbol of longevity;[2] peaches were also associated with the deity Shoulao (God of longevity).[17]
Pomegranate
Embroidery of a pomegranate
A pomegranate (Chinese: 石榴; pinyin: shíliǔ) is an auspicious pattern which represents the "abundance in all things" (especially, sons).[9] It can also symbolize multiple children[5] or offspring multiplied.[23] Pomegranates can be used to embroider Chinese cloth shoes, such as xiuhuaxie (Chinese: 绣花鞋; lit. 'embroidered shoes').[23]
Mushroom
Lingzhi mushroom on a rank badge
Lingzhi mushroom can be used on clothing, such as court clothing.[1] The auspicious characteristics of the lingzhi mushroom is a unique aspect in Chinese culture and were even worshipped in ancient times.[24]: 11 According ancient Taoist belief, the consumption of lingzhi allows one to never grow old and die.[24]: 11 Confucian scholars have been referring to the Lingzhi as "fortune herb" or "fortune grass" since the Han dynasty and considered the circular lines on the lingzhi cap as an auspicious symbol (or as fortune halos).[24]: 11 Lingzhi is therefore a symbol of Longevity, luck, fortune, peace, prosperity.[24]: 11
Auspicious mammal animals
Many animal motifs are found on Chinese textile and are often found in combined with cloud designs.[25] Textile patterns with animals and clouds have been popular, especially during the Han to the Jin dynasty around the 1st to the 3rd century.[26]
Bats
A single red bat (hongfu)
Five red bats (hongfu) with the stylized character shou (壽)
Chinese bat (Chinese: 蝠; pinyin: fú) motifs often look like a butterfly.[16]: 11 A bat is a symbol of happiness.[1] Bats have an auspicious meaning as the Chinese words for hongfu (Chinese: 红蝠; lit. 'red bats') sounds similar to the phrase "abundant good fortune".[16]: 11
Bats can be coupled with the Chinese character wan, written as《卐》and/or《卍》in Chinese characters, to expresses "ten thousand-fold wishes for good fortune and happiness".[17]
Five bats (Chinese: 五蝠; pinyin: wǔfú) represent five types of good fortune, called the Five blessings (Chinese: 五福; pinyin: wǔfú), which are good health, good wealth, longevity, love of virtue and a natural/ peaceful death.[16]: 11 [17]
Deer
A deer
A deer is a symbol of longevity.[5] The Chinese name of deer is Lu is also a homophone for Chinese character 'wealth' and 'official promotion'; it is therefore also the symbol of Luxing (the god of rank and remuneration).[17]
Lions
Lion on a rank badge, early Ming dynasty
Pair of lions chasing after a ball on a woman's informal robe, Qing dynasty, early 18th century.
The Chinese admired lions for their strength and courage; therefore, lions became associated with military and hunting prowess; they were typically found on the military rank badges on the Ming and Qing dynasties.[15]: 299
Rabbits
Rabbits, especially white rabbits, are symbols of longevity.[18][27] Textiles which show a rabbit motif are strongly associated with women and the moon (yin forces) and therefore, textiles with a rabbit on it would typically only be worn by women and eunuchs.[15]: 324
Yuetu/ Yutu/ Moon rabbit
Rabbits running amongst clouds, textile panel, Ming dynasty, late 16-17th century.
Embroidered jade rabbit making elixir of immortality, imperial robe, 18th century.
Yuetu (lit. "moon rabbit"), also known as yutu (jade rabbit) is a symbol of the moon.[28] According to ancient Chinese legends, the moon rabbit (and/or rabbits) lived on the moon.[28] Following this ancient belief, rabbits which run amongst clouds are intended to symbolize the moon.[29]
The moon rabbit is one of the Twelve Ornaments, which adorn the Emperor's imperial robe; it is depicted as a rabbit in a disc, which represents the moon.[28]
Rank Badge (Buzi) of the Fourth Military Rank with Tiger, Ming dynasty
Tiger rank badge, Qing dynasty
Tiger head hat of a child
Tigers were symbols of masculinity and was seen as a fighting power as the Lord of the animal kingdom.[4] Tiger heads are often found in Xifu where it is used to decorate military costumes.[4]
Auspicious birds
On textiles, birds were often inspired by paintings, literature, and by observation the natural surroundings; textiles which show birds paired with flowers originated from huaniaohua paintings, which were already popular during the Tang dynasty before gaining more social significance near the end of the Northern Song dynasty.[30]
Birds have an important place in Chinese culture as they are perceived as divine envoys and the heralds of auspicious events.[30] Birds were associated with a noble character while pairs of birds were sometimes associated with marital relationship between spouses.[30] The depiction of a crane with a phoenix, a mandarin duck, a heron, and a wagtail represents the 5 interpersonal relations according to Confucian beliefs.[30]
A crane bird is generally a symbol of longevity,[2][1][18] immortality and wisdom.[17][32] They can also express wishes of becoming a higher official.[30] Motif of crane with a peach of immortality in its beaks, crane with lingzhi in its beak,[30] crane paired with bottle gourds are all symbols of longevity.[31]
A pair of cranes expresses desire for a long matrimonial life.[30]
Two cranes flying toward the sun are a symbol of ambition.[30]
Mandarin ducks
Buzi of a civil official mandarin duck facing the sun embroidery, Qing dynasty.
A mandarin duck (yuanyang 鴛鴦) is a symbol of love and loyalty.[5]
Mandarin ducks are also a symbol of marital fidelity and can be used on the clothing of brides.[9]
Pairs of mandarin ducks were symbols of conjugal bliss and even appear on the clothing of brides.[21] Pairs of mandarin ducks also symbolize peace, prosperity, marital stability and devotion due to the belief that mandarin ducks pair up for life and would die if they were to be separated.[30]
Peacocks
Pair of peacocks on a rank badge, Ming dynasty
Rank badge with peacock, Qing dynasty
A peacock (孔雀 kongque) represents elegance, dignity and beauty.[30][32] It is also the symbol of the sun, virtue, love, and the power of the civil officials in the Imperial court.[30]
Pheasants
Colourful pheasants/ Huachong
Pair of huachong motif used on the diyi of the Song and Ming dynasties empresses.
Huachong is a colourful pheasant.[12] It is also one of the twelve symbols.[12] It is used on the imperial clothing of the Emperor and on the Diyi.[33] On the clothing of the Emperor, it represents the emperor's abundant knowledge, peace, and elegance.[12]
Golden pheasants
Golden pheasant embroidered on buzi, Qing dynasty.
A golden pheasant (jinji 金雞) symbolizes duties and obligations.[32]
Silver pheasants
A silver pheasant embroidered on a buzi, Qing dynasty.
Silver pheasant (baixian 白鷴) is a symbol of beauty and happiness.[30]
Other birds
Egrets or heron
Pairs of lu (heron or egrets), Ming dynasty rank badge.
When lu is paired with lotuses, it is represents the Confucian ideal of what an uncorrupted official is; it can also have the meaning as "recurring success on the path to career" where Lu is the path and the official gratification and the lotus represents the "recurring" characteristic.[30]
Paradise flycatcher
A white lu (egret or heron) on a rank badge, Qing dynasty.
Paradise flycatcher (shoudai niao 绶带鸟) with its long tail looking like ribbons represents longevity due to its name having the word 'shou' being the homonym of shou (longevity) and 'dai' being the homophone of dai (代) which means generation; thus expressing the wishes for longevity for the family's generation.[30]
Quail
A quail (anchun 鵪鶉) symbolizes courage[18] and is a symbol of peace.[30]
Wild geese
A wild goose (dayan 大雁 or e 鹅) symbolizes loyalty, fidelity, and marital bliss.[30][32]
Buddhist Priest's Robe (Sengjiazhi) with dragons, Qing dynasty, Qianlong period, 1736-1795
Chinese dragons, long (simplified Chinese: 龙; traditional Chinese: 龍; pinyin: lóng), are the national totem of the Chinese people; they are the most majestic symbols and are a symbol of authority, nobleness, honour, luck and success.[12] According to Chinese cosmology, the Heavens are divided into nine palaces; and each of these nine palaces are ruled by a dragon.[34]: 8 These nine dragons are often depicting as either ascending to or descending from the sky; they are also the symbolism of the dynamic powers of the Universe.[34]: 8
Chinese dragons are crucial elements on Chinese imperial clothing[12] and appeared on the imperial court clothing at the end of the 7th century and became the symbol of the Chinese emperors in the Song dynasty.[1] Chinese dragons continued to be used in the Qing dynasty in the imperial and court clothing.[1][12] The types of dragons and their numbers of claws were regulated and prescribed by the imperial court.[1] When Chinese dragons are enclosed in roundels, they are referred as tuanlong (团龙); they can also be enclosed in mandarin square (buzi).[35]
The Chinese dragons originally had three claws in the Tang and Song dynasties,[36]: 235 [37] but the definition of Chinese dragons in China eventually shifted, and were regulated and institutionalized. It was therefore formally established that the Chinese dragons should have 5-clawed in the Ming and Qing dynasties while the 4-clawed dragon were no longer considered to be dragons, but mang (蟒, lit. "python").[1][37]
Only the Emperor of China and some members of the imperial family were allowed to wear five-clawed dragons motifs which matched with the definition of Chinese dragons at those times. Other people wore other forms of dragon-like creatures, which were no longer considered as being Chinese dragons according to the contemporary standard. According to Shen Defu, a bureaucrat in the Ming dynasty, "the mang robe [蟒服, lit. "python robe"] is a garment with an image close to a dragon, similar to the dragon robe of the top authority (the emperor), except for the deduction of one claw".[38] Clothing with 4-clawed Chinese dragon-like creatures were mangfu, feiyufu and douniufu; feiyu and douniu have additional specific characteristics which differ them from both the mang and the long.[39] When the Ming dynasty court would bestow robes upon other chieftains, they would bestow four-clawed dragons;[37][note 8] lesser princes, nobles and senior court officials of the Ming dynasty were also prescribed mang.[8]: 184
Xinglong/ travelling dragon/ moving dragon
Xinlong
Xinlong (行龙) are curled body dragons that run horizontally with a sideways facing body and feet pointed downward, giving the appearance that they are walking or running.[35]
Dragon playing with (flaming) pearl or ball
A common motif used in clothing and other arts products is the dragon playing with flaming pearls (or balls[34]: 8 ), which appeared during the second half of the first 1st millennium AD.[1] The flaming ball or ball represents either the sun or the moon; it is sometimes referred as the "day or night shining pearl".[34]: 8
Travelling dragon (xinglong) chasing after a flaming pearl.
Unenclosed opposing dragons chasing after a pearl,
Opposing dragons (one ascending and one descending) chasing after flaming pearl enclosed in a roundel.
Lilong/ standing dragon
Lilong (立龙), or standing dragon,[35] is a dragon with curved standing body,[35] with its head in profile (facing a side).[40]: 247 The legs are splayed limbs and well distributed on 4 sides.
Sitting dragon/ front-facing dragon
Sitting dragon (zhenglong 正龙) or front-facing dragon[15]: 247 is a dragon with a curved body with its head facing front with splayed limbs.[15]: 247 The legs are well distributed on 4 sides.[35] The body have 7 bends.[41]
Zhengman (4-clawed dragon) in a roundel
Zhengmang in a buzi
Zhenglong (5-clawed) in a roundel
Unenclosed zhenglong
Jianglong/ descending dragon
Jianglong (降龙) or descending dragons are curling dragons which appear to be descending vertically.[35]
Three-clawed jianglong in roundel, Yuan dynasty
Jianglong enclosed in a roundel, Ming dynasty
Unenclosed jianglong, Qing dynasty
Shenglong/ ascending dragon
Shenglong (升龙) or ascending dragons (爬龍) are curling dragons which appear to be ascending vertically.[35]
Confronted dragons
Confronted ascending dragons, book cover, 18th century
Confronted dragons are two dragons facing toward each other and moving toward the same direction.
Fenghuang / phoenix
Fenghuang, Tang dynasty
Fenghuang symbolizes everything good and everything beautiful,[30] peace, good fortune, and feminine beauty.[21] The five virtues of the fenghuang are righteousness, humanity, chastity, fairness and sincerity.[30]
It is often found on the clothing of women.[21] The fenghuang is also the symbol of the empress and represent the yin principle in the Yin and Yang philosophical concept.[16]: 131 In Imperial China, the fenghuang was only embroidered on the clothing of the empresses.[16]: 131
Double phoenix
Circular textile with double phoenix, rank badge, Ming dynasty, 16-17th century
In the Ming dynasty, double phoenix were used in the rank badges were used by female member of the imperial household.[42]
Longfei fengwu/ Flying dragon and Dancing phoenix
Longfeifengwu (Chinese: 龙飞凤舞; lit. 'Flying dragon and dancing phoenix') is an auspicious ornaments which symbolizes marital bliss.[23] In the context of a traditional Chinese wedding, the Long, Chinese dragons, and Feng, Chinese phoenix, represent the groom and the bride respectively.[16]: 131 The Longfei fengwu can be used to embroider Chinese cloth shoes, such as xiuhuaxie.[23]
Qilin symbolizes good luck for an empire;[18] it is also the symbol of virtue and perfection.[17] Prior to 1662, qilin was used to decorate clothing of the nobles.[43]
After the 1662, the qilin was used to decorate the mandarin square (buzi) of the military officials of the 1st rank.[43]
Sun crow
Sanzuwu/ Three-legged crow
Sun crow (Erzuwu, two-legged crow), textile, Western Han dynasty.
According to Chinese legends and mythology, the sanzuwu lived on the sun and was perceived as the envoy who operated the sun; since the ancient Chinese people worshipped the sun, the sanzuwu was worshipped as a symbol of happiness and comfort.[12] The sanzuwu is one of the Twelve Ornaments, which adorn the Emperor's imperial robe.[12]
List of Chinese characters used in textile and clothing
Ji (吉) means good luck.[5] Inscriptions such as Ji (吉) and daji (大吉) have appeared very early on in ancient China and even appeared on unearthed oracle bones.[5] The character ji could be used to decorate dragon robes in the Qing dynasty.[1]
Shou
Stylized character shou with two wan symbols on a woman's sleeveless jacket, early 20th century
Chinese character shou with two wan characters floating over it, textile on brocaded silk satin, 17th century
Stylized Chinese character shou, a symbol of longevity, on an embroidered infant undergarment, between 1900 and 1950
Shou《壽》means longevity.[2][44]: 179 [17] The stylized character of shou can also be used to decorate women's garments.[21]
The Chinese character shou can also be combined with Chinese character wan, written as《卐》or《卍》.
Wan
Embroidery of wan on a dragon robe, Qing dynasty
Double wan embroidery on a robe, Qing dynasty
The Chinese character wan, written as《卐》or《卍》, is similar to the swastika. It is a symbol of immortality.[18] It was adopted from a Buddhist symbol. It was declared as the source of all good fortune in 693 by Wu Zetian who called it wan.[17]
Wan sounds the same as "ten thousand" or "infinity"; as such adding wan to another symbol pattern multiplies that wish 10,000 times.[17] It can be combined with other Chinese characters such as shou (longevity).
Pearls (baozhu) is symbol of good fortune (wealth); it was used to decorate clothing.[15]: 123 According to Chinese belief, pearls embodied the yin essence of the moon and would protect them from the yang essence of the sun.[15]: 123 Pearls are often depicted with the imperial dragon as according to the legend, the dragon guards a peal under the water.[16]: 132 The pearl is one of the Eight treasures and regularly appears on textiles and rank badge.[15]: 123 By the mid-Qing dynasty, the pearl evolved into the flaming pearl.[15]: 123 The flaming pearl represents the sun, wisdom, power and an imperial treasure.[16]: 132
Ball or flaming ball
The ball or flaming ball represents either the sun or the moon; it is sometimes referred as the "day or night shining pearl".[34]: 8
^ abXue, Franklin (2021). Rising Clouds at Water's Edge: Clouds and Mist in the Chinese Imagination (Masters thesis). University of Virginia. doi:10.18130/0d8h-c755.
^ abcdeBulling, A. (1952). The Meaning of China's most ancient art: an interpretation of pottery patterns from Kansu, Ma Ch'ang and Pan-Shan, and their development in the Shang, Chou and Han periods. E.J. Brill. OCLC458973124.
^Sullivan, Michael (1999). The arts of China (4th ed., expanded and rev ed.). Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. ISBN0-520-21876-0. OCLC40200406.
^Shigeki, Kawakami (1998). "Imperial dragons". Kyoto National Museum. Archived from the original on 2015-09-12. Retrieved 2021-03-19.
^Welch, Patricia Bjaaland (2012). Chinese art: a guide to motifs and visual imagery. Boston, US: Tuttle Publishing. ISBN978-1-4629-0689-5. OCLC893707208.
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