Historical examples
Qin and Han dynasty
Prior to the Qin dynasty, Wang (sovereign) was the title for the ruler of whole China. Under him were the vassals or Zhuhou (諸侯), who held territories granted by a succession of Zhou dynasty kings. They had the duty to support the Zhou king during an emergency and were ranked according to the Five Orders of Nobility. In the Spring and Autumn period, the Zhou kings had lost most of their powers, and the most powerful vassals became the de facto ruler of China. Finally, in the Warring States period, most vassals declared themselves Wang or kings, and regarded themselves as equal to the Zhou king.
After Zheng, king of the state of Qin, later known as Qin Shi Huang, defeated all the other vassals and unified China, he adopted the new title of Huangdi (emperor). Qin Shi Huang eliminated noble titles, as he sponsored legalism which believed in merit, not birth. He forced all nobles to the capital, seized their lands and turned them into administrative districts with the officials ruling them selected on merit. After the demise of Qin Er Shi, the last Qin ruler to use the title Huangdi (his successor Ziying used the title King of Qin rather than Emperor), Xiang Yu styled himself Hegemon King of Western Chu (Xichu Bàwáng 西楚霸王) rather than Emperor. Xiang Yu gave King Huai II of Chu the title of Emperor of Chu (楚義帝) or The Righteous Emperor of Southern Chu (南楚義帝) and awarded the rest of his allies, including Liu Bang, titles and a place to administer. Xiang Yu gave Liu Bang the Principality of Han, and he would soon replace him as the ruler of China.
The founder of the Han dynasty, Liu Bang, continued to use the title Huangdi. In order to appease his wartime allies, he gave each of them a piece of land as their own "kingdom" (Wangguo) along with a title of Wang. He eventually killed all of them and replaced them with members of his family. These kingdoms remained effectively independent until the Rebellion of the Seven States. Since then, Wang became merely the highest hereditary title, which roughly corresponded to the title of prince, and, as such, was commonly given to relatives of the emperor. The title Gong also reverted purely to a peerage title, ranking below Wang. Those who bore such titles were entirely under the auspices of the emperor, and had no ruling power of their own. The two characters combined to form the rank, Wanggong, grew to become synonymous with all higher court officials.
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Further information: Society and culture of the Han dynasty on practices during this period. |
The title of Duke of Song and "Duke Who Continues and Honours the Yin" (殷紹嘉公) were bestowed upon Kong An 孔安 (東漢) by the Eastern Han dynasty because he was part of the Shang dynasty's legacy.[9] This branch of the Confucius family is a separate branch from the line that held the title of Marquis of Fengsheng village and later Duke Yansheng.
The Han dynasty bestowed the hereditary title 周子南君 upon the Zhou dynasty royal descendant Ji Jia 姬嘉 and his descendants.[10]
Family tree of Chinese nobility from the Han dynasty to the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. (中國士族世系圖列表)
Between Han and Sui
Nine-rank system[11] Dishu system[12]
Special "commanderies of immigrants" and "white registers" were created for the massive amount of northern-origin Han Chinese who moved south during the Eastern Jin dynasty.[13] The southern Chinese aristocracy was formed from the offspring of these migrants.[14] Celestial Masters and the nobility of northern China subdued the nobility of southern China during the Western Jin (the Jiangnan region specifically) and Eastern Jin periods.[15] Southern China became the most populous region of China after the depopulation of the north and the migration of northern Chinese to southern China.[16][17] Different waves of migration of aristocratic Chinese from northern China to the south at different times resulted in distinct groups of lineages, with some lineages arriving in the 300s-400s and others in the 800s-900s.[18]
Literati of all ethnicities seemed to be regarded as Han Chinese, because even ethnic Xianbei affiliated with the Northern Wei were referred to (insultingly) as "damned Chinese" by the Northern Qi elites from the Northern Garrisons.[19]
Examples of individuals appearing as culturally Xianbei and at the same time declaring Han Chinese ancestry was Gao Huan and the Han family.[20] The Han Chinese Gao family of Bohai (渤海高氏[21][22]) was claimed by Gao Huan as his ancestors. Gao was of Han Chinese background but Xianbei-acculturated. He was raised in Huaishuozhen while his family came from Bohai prefecture in modern Hebei.[23] He was culturally Xianbei since his clan was raised in Inner Mongolia after being relocated from what is modern Hebei (Bohai) where his Han Chinese ancestors lived.[24] Honorary Bohai descent was bestowed upon Gao Longshi by Gao Huan. Bohai was asserted as the ancestral home of Gao Huan by Gao Huan.[25]
Huaibei was the geographic origin of the Zhou of Runan 汝南周氏 who were part of the Eastern Jin dynasty.[26] The Linghu of Dunhuang 敦煌令狐氏 were descended from King Wen of Zhou through his son Duke Gao of Bi 畢公高. The Yan of Langye 琅邪顏氏 spawned Yan Zhitui. The Northern Wei's Eight Noble Xianbei surnames 八大贵族 were the Buliugu 步六孤, Helai 賀賴, Dugu 獨孤, Helou 賀樓, Huniu 忽忸, Qiumu 丘穆, Gexi 紇奚, and Yuchi 尉遲. They adopted Chinese last names.
A fief of 100 households and the rank of 崇聖侯 Marquis who worships the sage was bestowed upon a Confucius descendant, Yan Hui's lineage had 2 of its scions and Confucius's lineage had 4 of its scions who had ranks bestowed on them in Shandong in 495 and a fief of ten households and rank of 崇聖大夫 Grandee who venerates the sage was bestowed on 孔乘 Kong Sheng who was Confucius's scion in the 28th generation in 472 by Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei.[27][28]
Despite the massacre Cui Hao's clan, the Cui clan of Qinghe survived into the Tang dynasty.
Sui dynasty and Tang dynasty
The aristocracy of the Tang era can be divided into 4 blocs, the most prestigious Northeastern (Shandong, which included Hebei, Henan, central Shanxi) bloc, the Northwestern (Guan-Long, or Shaanxi, southern and northern Shanxi) bloc, the Southern émigré clans, and the Southern native aristocrats. The Southern émigrés primarily emphasised Buddhism and belles lettres literature, while the other 3 blocs were more focused on Confucian Classics. Due to rebellions that plagued the south in late Northern and Southern dynasties, the Southerners were weaker than the Northerners, a situation exacerbated by the capital being in the north.[29]
The northeastern Chinese aristocracy during the Sui-Tang period was of pure Han blood, while they looked down upon the northwestern aristocracy which was of mixed Han and Xianbei blood. This hybrid mixed blood Chinese and Northwestern (Guanlong) 關隴集團 aristocracy was the source of the Sui dynasty and Tang dynasty Imperial clans[30][31] who were responsible for reuniting China.[32][33][34]
The northwest military aristocracy was the group from which the Sui dynasty Emperors originated;[35] they emphasized that their patrilineal ancestry was ethnic Han,[36] claiming descent from the Han official Yang Zhen.[37] The New Book of Tang traced his patrilineal ancestry to the Zhou dynasty kings via the Dukes of Jin.[38] The Sui Emperors had maternal Xianbei ancestry from a woman of the Xianbei Dugu family. The Tang dynasty Imperial family claimed to be paternally descended from Laozi (whose personal name was Li Dan or Li Er),[39][40][41] the Han dynasty General Li Guang,[42][43][44] Qin General Li Xin and Western Liang ruler Li Gao. This family was known as the Longxi Li lineage (隴西李氏). The Tang Emperors had Xianbei maternal ancestry,[45][46] from Emperor Gaozu of Tang's Xianbei mother Duchess Dugu.[47][48]
Ancient Han ancestry was asserted by the Tang and Sui Emperors,[49] [50] while the admixture was the result of their Xianbei mothers,[46][51][52][53][54][55][56] the Dugu clan.[57][58][59][60]
The Guanzhong noble families of Han Chinese background married the Northern Zhou Xianbei Yuwen family.[61][62]
The Northeastern aristocracy supported Wu Zetian while the Northwestern aristocracy opposed her.[63] The northwestern aristocracy was countered by the northeastern aristocracy who were supported by the Sui Yangdi Emperor.[64] However, political positions within both the northeastern and northwestern aristocracies was not uniform.[65]
During the Tang dynasty, nobles lost most of their power to the mandarins when imperial examination replaced the nine-rank system.[66] The Anding origin noble Liang family produced Liang Su, a Confucian scholar.[67] An anti-meritocratic pro-aristocratic faction was led by Li Linfu.[68]
The Han Chinese noble families of Northeastern region dominated the Central Plains-based Northern Qi and Eastern Wei.[69][70]
A "marriage ban" was applied to the northeastern aristocracy by emperor Tang Taizong in an attempt to stop them from intermarrying further and reinforcing their prestige. However this policy backfired.[71] During the Tang dynasty the Li family of Zhaojun 赵郡李氏,[72] the Cui clan of Boling, the Cui clan of Qinghe, the Lu clan of Fanyang, the Zheng family of Xingyang w:zh:荥阳郑氏, the Wang family of Taiyuan 太原王氏, and the Li family of Longxi 隴西李氏 were the seven noble families 七姓十家 between whom marriage was banned by law.[73] Moriya Mitsuo wrote a history of the Later Han-Tang period of the Taiyuan Wang. Among the strongest families was the Taiyuan Wang.[74] The prohibition on marriage between the clans issued in 659 by the Gaozong Emperor was flouted by the seven families since a woman of the Boling Cui married a member of the Taiyuan Wang, giving birth to the poet Wang Wei.[75] He was the son of Wang Chulian who in turn was the son of Wang Zhou.[76] The marriages between the families were performed clandestinely after the prohibition was implemented on the seven families by Gaozong.[77] The Zhou dynasty King Ling's son Prince Jin is assumed by most to be the ancestor of the Taiyuan Wang.[78] The Longmen Wang were a cadet line of the Zhou dynasty descended Taiyuan Wang, and Wang Yan and his grandson Wang Tong hailed from his cadet line.[79] Both Buddhist monks and scholars hailed from the Wang family of Taiyuan such as the monk Tanqian.[80] The Wang family of Taiyuan included Wang Huan.[81] Their status as "Seven Great surnames" became known during Gaozong's rule.[82] The Taiyuan Wang family produced Wang Jun who served under Emperor Huai of Jin.[83] A Fuzhou-based section of the Taiyuan Wang produced the Buddhist monk Baizhang.[84]
Other clans included the Zhao of Tianshui 天水趙氏, the Gao of Bohai 渤海高氏, the Liu of Pengcheng 彭城劉氏, the Zhang of Qinghe 清河張氏, the Zhang of Nanyang 南陽張氏, the Pei of Hedong 河東裴氏, the Wei of Jingzhao 京兆韋氏, the Yang of Hongong 弘農楊氏, and the Wang of Langye 琅邪王氏.[73]
The Zheng family of Xingyang 滎陽鄭氏 claim descent from the Zhou dynasty Kings via the rulers of the State of Zheng. The Marquis of Xingyang rank was created for Zheng Xi.[85] The Xingyang Zheng spawned Zheng Daozhao and Zheng Xi.[86] Zheng Wanjun was a member of the Xingyang Zheng.[87] The Xingyang Zheng spawned Zheng Yuzhong (Zheng Qiao).[88] The Xingyang Zheng spawned Zheng Jiong.[89] The Zheng of Xingyang may have been miswritten in the records as the Zheng of Rongyang.[90][91]
The bigger Longxi Li lineage outside of the Tang Imperial family has prominent members like Li Jiongxiu, Li Yiyan, Li Kui (chancellor), Li Wei (Tang dynasty), Li Fengji, Li Zhongyan, Li Jing (Tang dynasty), Li Zhaode, and Li Bai.
Cui Qun was part of the Cui clan of Qinghe.
The Tang Longxi lineage also included sub lineages like the Guzang Li (姑臧李), from which Li Zhuanmei 李專美 came from.[92]
The Zhaojun Li were written about by David Johnson while the Cui of Boling were written about by Patricia Ebrey.[93][94][95][96][97][98]
The cadet Canhuang Li were part of the Li of Zhaojun. The Li of Longxi produced Li Kuan 李觀 while the Li of Zhaojun produced Li Hua 李華.[99]
The Tianshui Zhao 天水趙氏. The Song dynasty Emperors hailed from the Guandong Zhao while the Longxi Li produced the Tang Emperors.[100]
The seven clans were divided into a further 44 sub branches.[101]
The Li of Zhaojun and the Lu of Fanyang hailed from Shandong and were related to the Liu clan which was also linked to the Yang of Hongnong and other clans of Guanlong.[102]
The Li of Zhaojun, Lu of Fanyang, Zheng of Yingyang 滎陽鄭氏 were of Shandong origin like the Wang of Taiyuan.[103]
The Yang of Hongnong 弘農楊氏[104][105][106][107][103] were asserted as ancestors by the Sui Emperors like the Longxi Li's were asserted as ancestors of the Tang Emperors.[108] The Dukes of Jin were claimed as the ancestors of the Hongnong Yang.[109] The Yang of Hongnong spawned 楊昭儉 Yang Zhaojian.[110] This clan was the family of Yang Guozhong, Yang Guifei,[111][112] and Yang Wan[113] Their ancestor was Yang Zhen who served during the reign of Emperor An of Han. He is mentioned in the Book of the Later Han.[114]
The Pei of Hedong 河東裴氏 produced Pei Qi.[115]
The Yang of Hongnong, Jia of Hedong, Xiang of Henei, and Wang of Taiyuan from the Tang dynasty were claimed as ancestors by Song dynasty lineages.[116]
The Zhou of Runan 汝南周氏 lived on after the Tang dynasty's collapse.[117]
Meng Haoran and Meng Jiao were descendants of Mencius who lived during the Tang dynasty.
After Tang dynasty
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Main article: Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty |
Some Song dynasty families were descended from Tang era nobility.[118]
Some of the Tang dynasty Imperial family's cadet branches ended up in Fujian- one founded by Li Dan 李丹 which became prominent in the Song dynasty.[119] another founded by Li Fu 李富 also becoming prominent during the Song dynasty.[120]
The Tang Longxi lineage also included sub lineages like the Guzang Li 姑臧李,[121][122] from which Li Zhuanmei 李專美 came from, who served the Later Jin.[123]
Descendants of the Tang Emperors live in Chengcun village near the Wuyi mountains in Fujian.[124]
Subsequent dynasties expanded the hereditary titles further. Not all titles of peerage are hereditary, and the right to continue the heredity passage of a very high title was seen as a very high honour; at the end of the Qing dynasty, there were five grades of princes, amongst a myriad of other titles. For details, see Qing dynasty nobility.
A few Chinese families enjoyed hereditary titles in the full sense, the chief among them being the Holy Duke of Yen (the descendant of Confucius); others, such as the lineal descendants of Wen Tianxiang, ennobled the Duke of Xingguo, not choosing to use their hereditary title.
When the Ming dynasty emerged Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang's military officers who served under him were given noble titles which privileged the holder with a stipend but in all other aspects was merely symbolic.[125] (功臣世表)[126] Mu Ying's family was among them.[127][128][129][130][131][132][133][134][135][136][137][138] Special rules against abuse of power were implemented on the nobles.[139]
Zengzi was a descendant of the Xia dynasty Kings through Shao Kang.[140][141]
Duke Huan of Lu's son through Qingfu (慶父) was the ancestor of Mencius. He was descended from Duke Yang of the State of Lu 魯煬公 Duke Yang was the son of Bo Qin, who was the son of the Duke of Zhou of the Zhou dynasty royal family. The genealogy is found in the Mencius family tree (孟子世家大宗世系).[142][143][144]
During the Ming dynasty, one of Mencius' descendants was given a hereditary title at the Hanlin Academy by the Emperor. The title they held was Wujing Boshi (五经博士; 五經博士; Wǔjīng Bóshì).
In 1452 Wujing Boshi was bestowed upon the offspring of Mengzi-Meng Xiwen 孟希文 56th generation[145][146][147][148][149] and Yan Hui-Yan Xihui 顔希惠 59th generation,[145][146][147][148][149] the same was bestowed on the offspring of Zhou Dunyi-Zhou Mian 週冕 12th generation,[150] the two Cheng brothers (Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi-Chen Keren 程克仁 17th generation[145][146][147][148][149]), Zhu Xi-Zhu Ting 朱梴 (Zhu Chan?) 9th generation,[151] in 1456–1457, in 1539 the same was awarded to Zeng Can's offspring-Zeng Zhicui 曾質粹 60th generation, in 1622 the offspring of Zhang Zai received the title and in 1630 the offspring of Shao Yong.[152][153] Zhang Zai's offspring received the appointment as wujing boshi along with Zhu Xi's, Cheng Hao's, Cheng Yi's, and Zhou Dunyi's offspring.[154] Biographies of those who were awarded the title of Wujing Boshi in the Ming dynasty are found in Volume 284, Biographies 172 of the History of Ming (明史).
The Imperial Clansmen consisted of those who trace their descent direct from the founder of the Qing dynasty, and were distinguished by the privilege of wearing a yellow girdle; collateral relatives of the imperial house wore a red girdle. Twelve degrees of nobility (in a descending scale as one generation succeeds another) were conferred on the descendants of every emperor; in the thirteenth generation the descendants of emperors were merged in the general population, save that they retain the yellow girdle. The heads of eight houses, the Iron-capped (or helmeted) princes, maintained their titles in perpetuity by rule of primogeniture in virtue of having helped the Manchu conquest of China.
The title Wujing boshi 五經博士 was created in the Han dynasty.[155][156][157][158][159] Holders of the title were considered part of Hanlin Academy.[160]
Confucian sages (Disciples of Confucius and Neo Confucian scholars) offspring were granted the office of "Wujing Boshi" (五经博士; 五經博士; Wǔjīng Bóshì).[161] There were 22 of them.[162][163][164] [a] It was also granted to the cadet branch of the Confucius family at Quzhou.[178][179][180][181][182]
The descendants of the Four Sages 四氏, Confucius, Mencius, Zengzi, and Yan Hui still use generation poems for their names given to them by the Ming and Qing Emperors.[183][184]
The Qing appointed the Ming imperial descendants to the title of Marquis of Extended Grace.
Zhang Daoling's offspring, the Celestial Masters held the title of 正一嗣教眞人.[185][186][168]
The main line of the Duke of Zhou's descendants came from his firstborn son, the State of Lu ruler Bo Qin's third son Yu (魚) whose descendants adopted the surname Dongye (東野).
東野家族大宗世系 Family Tree of the descendants of the Duke of Zhou in Chinese
One of the Duke of Zhou's 72 generation descendants family tree was examined and commented on by Song Lian.[187]
The Zhikou Jiangs (also romanized as "Chiangs") such as Chiang Kai-shek were descended from Jiang Shijie who during the 17th century moved there from Fenghua District, whose ancestors in turn came to southeastern China's Zhejiang province after moving out of Northern China in the 13th century CE. The 12th-century BCE Duke of Zhou's third son was the ancestor of the Jiangs.[188][189][190]
The oldest held continuous noble title in Chinese history was that held by the descendants of Confucius, as Duke Yansheng, which was renamed as the Sacrificial Official to Confucius in 1935 by the Republic of China. The title is held by Kung Tsui-chang.
Han defectors played a massive role in the Qing conquest of China. Han Chinese Generals who defected to the Manchu were often given women from the Imperial Aisin Gioro family in marriage while the ordinary soldiers who defected were often given non-royal Manchu women as wives. The Manchu leader Nurhaci married one of his granddaughters to the Ming General Li Yongfang 李永芳 after he surrendered Fushun in Liaoning to the Manchu in 1618.[191] The offspring of Li received the "Third Class Viscount" (三等子爵; sān děng zǐjué) title.[192] Li Yongfang was the great-great-great-grandfather of Li Shiyao 李侍堯.[193]
Upon the surrender of Zheng Keshuang he received the title of Duke Haicheng from the Qing and his follower Feng Xifan received the title of Count Zhongcheng.
Shi Lang received the title of Marquis Jinghai from the Qing.
Zeng Guofan, Zuo Zongtang and Li Hongzhang received the title of Marquis from the Qing. Zeng Guofan was a descendant of Zengzi through a cadet branch.
Most titles of nobility were officially abolished when China became a republic in 1912, with the Republic maintaining some titles like Duke Yansheng. They were briefly expanded under Yuan Shikai's empire and after Zhang Xun's coup. The last emperor was allowed to keep his title but was treated as a foreign monarch until the 1924 coup. Manchukuo also had titles of nobility.
The bestowal of titles was abolished upon the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949.
The families of the descendants of the Four Sages 四氏 still hold hereditary offices in the Republic of China (Taiwan) such as the Sacrificial Official to Confucius, "Sacrificial Official to Mencius", "Sacrificial Official to Zengzi", and "Sacrificial Official to Yan Hui".[194][195][196]
List of people granted peerage by Yuan Shikai as self-proclaimed emperor (1915–1916)
After the fall of the Qing dynasty and its "Last Emperor" Puyi in the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, Chinese President Yuan Shikai attempted to resurrect the imperial system, proclaiming himself emperor in his brief Empire of China (1915–1916) which ended with his death 83 days after its inauguration. During this period, Yuan Shikai as sovereign declared the ennoblement of several people, in this case not so much his family and clan as allies and those he sought as supporters for the new Empire. Some declined the honors.
Prince of the First Rank Wuyi (武義親王 Wǔyì qīn wáng)
Dukes of the First Rank (一等公 Yī děng gōng)
Marquesses of the First Rank (一等侯 Yī děng hóu)
- Tang Xiangming (湯薌銘)
- Li Chun (李純)
- Zhu Rui (朱瑞)
- Lu Rongting
- Zhao Ti (趙倜)
- Chen Yi
- Tang Jiyao
- Yan Xishan
- Wang Zhanyuan (王占元)
- Lui Kang
Counts of the First Rank (一等伯 Yī děng bó)
- Zhang Xiluan (張錫鑾)
- Zhu Jiabao (朱家寶)
- Zhang Mingqi (張鳴岐)
- Tian Wenlie (田文烈)
- Jin Yunpeng
- Yang Zengxin (楊增新)
- Lu Jianzhang (陸建章)
- Meng Enyuan (孟恩遠)
- Qu Yinguang (屈映光)
- Qi Yaolin (齊耀琳)
- Cao Kun
- Yang Shande (楊善德)
Viscounts of the First Rank (一等子 Yī děng zǐ)
- Zhu Qinglan (朱慶瀾)
- Zhang Guangjian (張廣建)
- Li Houji (李厚基)
- Liu Xianshi (劉顯世)
Barons of the First Rank (一等男 Yī děng nán)
- Ma Anliang (馬安良)
- Xu Shiying (許世英)
- Qi Yang (戚揚)
- Ren Kecheng (任可澄)
- Wang Yitang (王揖唐)
- He Zonglian (何宗蓮)
- Zhang Huaizhi (張懷芝)
- Long Jinuang (龍覲光)
- Chen Bingkun
- Lu Yongxiang (盧永祥)
- Lü Diaoyuan (呂調元)
- Jin Yong (金永)
- Cai Rukai (蔡儒楷)
- Duan Shuyun (段書雲)
- Long Jianzhang (龍建章)
- Shen Jinjian (沈金鑑)
- Pan Juying (潘矩楹)
Baron of the Third Rank (三等男 Sān děng nán)
Modern Chinese styles for foreign monarchs
In modern Chinese, a king is referred to as a Wang, while an emperor would be referred to as Huangdi. Traditional Chinese political theory held that "All lands under Heaven belong to the emperor, all people under Heaven belong, are subjects of the emperor." (普天之下，莫非王土; 率土之濱, 莫非王臣). Queen Victoria was styled Nü-Wang (Queen) of the United Kingdom of Britain and Ireland. Thus, a foreign monarch would also be referred to as Wang, implying that one was inferior in rank and thus subject to the Chinese emperor.
