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((Short description|Chinese folk religion))
((split|Wu (shaman)|Chinese folk religion|date=June 2019))
((more citations needed|date=June 2019))
((multiple image
| footer    = Ideograms of ''[[wu (shaman)|wu]]'' ((lang|zh|巫)) in different ancient [[Chinese calligraphy|Chinese scripts]].
| align     = right

| image1    = 巫-seal.svg
| width1    = 90
| caption1  = [[Seal script]]

| image2    = 巫-bigseal.svg
| width2    = 90
| caption2  = [[Great Seal script]]

| image3    = 巫-bronze.svg
| width3    = 90
| caption3  = [[Bronzeware script]]
))
((Chinese folk religion))

'''Chinese shamanism''', alternatively called '''Wuism''' (((zh|c=巫教|p=wū jiào|l=[[wu (shaman)|wu]] religion, [[shamanism]], [[witchcraft]])); alternatively ((lang|zh|巫觋宗教)) ''wū xí zōngjiào''), refers to the [[shamanism|shamanic]] [[religion|religious tradition]] of [[China]].((sfn|Libbrecht|2007|p=43))((sfn|Eichhorn|1973|pp=55-70)) Its features are especially connected to the ancient Neolithic cultures such as the [[Hongshan culture]].((sfn|Nelson|Matson|Roberts|Rock|2006)) Chinese shamanic traditions are intrinsic to [[Chinese folk religion]].((sfn|Zhang|Hriskos|2003))

Various ritual traditions are rooted in original Chinese shamanism: contemporary [[Chinese ritual mastery traditions|Chinese ritual masters]] are sometimes identified as ''wu'' by outsiders,((sfn|Nadeau|2012|p=140)) though most orders don't self-identify as such. Also [[Taoism]] has some of its origins from Chinese shamanism:((sfn|Libbrecht|2007|p=43))((sfn|Waldau|Patton|2009|p=280)) it developed around the pursuit of long life (''shou'' ((lang|zh-hant|壽))/((lang|zh-hans|寿))), or the status of a ''[[xian (Taoism)|xian]]'' (((lang|zh|仙)), "mountain man", "holy man").((sfn|Libbrecht|2007|p=43))

==Meaning of ''wu''==
((Main article|Wu (shaman)))
[[File:中国法师.jpg|thumb|260px|A ((lang|zh|巫)) ''wu'' master]]
The [[Chinese language|Chinese]] word ''wu'' ((lang|zh|巫)) "shaman, wizard", indicating a person who can mediate with the powers generating things (the [[etymology|etymological]] meaning of "spirit", "god", or ''nomen agentis'', ''virtus'', ''energeia''), was first recorded during the [[Shang dynasty]] (ca. 1600-1046 BCE), when a ''wu'' could be either sex. During the late [[Zhou dynasty]] (1045-256 BCE) ''wu'' was used to specify [[Women in ancient and imperial China|"female shaman]]; sorceress" as opposed to ''xi'' ((lang|zh|覡)) "male shaman; sorcerer" (which first appears in the 4th century BCE [[Guoyu (book)|''Guoyu'']]). Other sex-differentiated shaman names include ''nanwu'' ((lang|zh|男巫)) for "male shaman; sorcerer; wizard"; and ''nüwu'' ((lang|zh|女巫)), ''wunü'' ((lang|zh|巫女)), ''wupo'' ((lang|zh|巫婆)), and ''wuyu'' ((lang|zh|巫嫗)) for "female shaman; sorceress; witch".

The word ''[[tongji (spirit medium)|tongji]]'' ((lang|zh|童乩)) (lit. "youth diviner") "shaman; spirit-medium" is a near-synonym of ''wu''. Modern Chinese distinguishes native ''wu'' from "[[Shamanism in Siberia|Siberian shaman]]": ''saman'' ((lang|zh|薩滿)) or ''saman'' ((lang|zh|薩蠻)); and from Indian ''[[Shramana]]'' "wandering monk; ascetic": ''shamen'' ((lang|zh|沙門)), ''sangmen'' ((lang|zh|桑門)), or ''sangmen'' ((lang|zh|喪門)).

[[Berthold Laufer]] (1917:370) proposed an etymological relation between [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] ''bügä'' "shaman", [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] ''bögü'' "shaman", Chinese ''bu'', ''wu'' (shaman), ''buk'', ''puk'' (to divine), and [[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]] ''aba'' (pronounced ''ba'', sorcerer). Coblin (1986:107) puts forward a Sino-Tibetan root *''((IPA|mjaɣ))'' "magician; sorcerer" for Chinese ''wu'' < ''mju'' < *''mjag'' ((lang|zh|巫)) "magician; shaman" and [[Tibetan script|Written Tibetan]]'' 'ba'-po'' "sorcerer" and'' 'ba'-mo'' "sorcereress" (of the [[Bön]] religion). Further connections are to the ''bu-mo'' priests of [[Zhuang people|Zhuang]] [[Shigongism]] and the ''bi-mo'' priests of [[Bimoism]], the [[Yi people|Yi]] indigenous faith. Also Korean ''mu'' ((lang|zh|무)) (of [[Muism]]) is cognate to Chinese ''wu'' ((lang|zh|巫)). Schuessler lists some etymologies: ''wu'' could be cognate with ''wu'' ((lang|zh|舞)) "to dance"; ''wu'' could also be cognate with ''mu'' ((lang|zh|母)) "mother" since ''wu'', as opposed to ''xi'' ((lang|zh|覡)), were typically female; ''wu'' could be a loanword from [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] *''maghu'' or *''maguš'' "magi; magician", meaning an "able one; specialist in ritual". [[Victor H. Mair|Mair]] (1990) provides archaeological and linguistic evidence that Chinese ''wu'' < *''m<sup>y</sup>ag'' ((lang|zh|巫)) "shaman; witch, wizard; magician" was maybe a [[loanword]] from [[Old Persian]] *''maguš'' "magician; [[magi]]". Mair connects the nearly identical Chinese Bronze script for ''wu'' and Western [[heraldic]] [[cross potent]] '''☩''', an ancient symbol of a ''magus'' or ''magician''

==Early history==
The Chinese religion from the [[Shang dynasty]] onwards developed around [[ancestral worship]].((sfn|Libbrecht|2007|p=43)) The main gods from this period are not forces of nature in the [[Sumerian religion|Sumerian]] way, but [[deification|deified]] virtuous men.((sfn|Libbrecht|2007|p=43)) The ancestors of the emperors were called ''di'' (((lang|zh|帝))), and the greatest of them was called ''[[Shangdi]]'' (((lang|zh|上帝)), "the Highest Lord").((sfn|Libbrecht|2007|p=43)) He is identified with the [[Chinese dragon|dragon]] (''[[Kui (Chinese mythology)|Kui]]'' ((lang|zh|夔))), symbol of the [[Absolute (philosophy)|universal power]] ([[qi]]).((sfn|Libbrecht|2007|p=43))

Cosmic powers dominate nature: the [[Sun]], the [[Moon]], stars, winds and clouds were considered informed by divine energies.((sfn|Libbrecht|2007|p=43)) The earth god is ''She'' (((lang|zh|社))) or ''[[Tu Di Gong|Tu]]'' (((lang|zh|土))).((sfn|Libbrecht|2007|p=43)) The Shang period had two methods to enter in contact with divine ancestors: the first is the numinous-mystical ''[[wu (shaman)|wu]]'' (((lang|zh|巫))) practice, involving dances and trances; and the second is the method of the [[oracle bones]], a rational way.((sfn|Libbrecht|2007|p=43))

The [[Zhou dynasty]], succeeding the Shang, was more rooted in an agricultural worldview.((sfn|Libbrecht|2007|p=43)) They opposed the ancestor-gods of the Shang, and gods of nature became dominant.((sfn|Libbrecht|2007|p=43)) The [[Absolute (philosophy)|utmost power]] in this period was named ''[[Tian]]'' (((lang|zh|天)), "heaven").((sfn|Libbrecht|2007|p=43)) With ''[[Di (Chinese concept)|Di]]'' (((lang|zh|地)), "earth") he forms the whole [[cosmos]] in a complementary duality.((sfn|Libbrecht|2007|p=43))

== Qing period ==
((main|Shamanism in the Qing dynasty))
The [[Manchu]] rulers of the [[Qing dynasty]] (1644–1912) introduced substantial elements of [[Tungusic peoples|Tungusic]] shamanism to China. [[Hong Taiji]] (1592–1643) put shamanistic practices in the service of the state, notably by forbidding others to erect new shrines (''tangse'') for ritual purposes. In the 1620s and 1630s, the Qing ruler conducted shamanic sacrifices at the ''tangse'' of [[Mukden]], the Qing capital. In 1644, as soon as the Qing [[Shunzhi Emperor#Settling in the capital|seized Beijing]] to begin [[Manchu conquest of China|their conquest of China]], they named it their new capital and erected an official shamanic shrine there. In the [[Beijing]] ''tangse'' and in the women's quarters of the [[Forbidden City]], Qing emperors and professional shamans (usually women) conducted shamanic ceremonies until the abdication of the dynasty in 1912.

In 1747 the [[Qianlong Emperor]] (r. 1735–1796) commissioned the publication of a ''Shamanic Code'' to revive and regulate shamanic practices, which he feared were becoming lost. He had it distributed to Bannermen to guide their practice, but we know very little about the effect of this policy. Mongols and Han Chinese were forbidden to attend shamanic ceremonies. Partly because of their secret aspect, these rituals attracted the curiosity of Beijing dwellers and visitors to the Qing capital. French Jesuit [[Joseph-Marie Amiot]] published a study on the ''Shamanic Code'', "((lang|fr|Rituels des Tartares Mandchous déterminés et fixés par l'empereur comme chef de sa religion))" (1773). In 1777 the Qianlong Emperor ordered the code translated into Chinese for inclusion in the ''[[Complete Library of the Four Treasuries]]''. The Manchu version was printed in 1778, whereas the Chinese-language edition, titled ''Qinding Manzhou jishen jitian dianli'' (((lang|zh-Hant-TW|欽定滿洲祭神祭天典禮))), was completed in 1780 or 1782.((sfn|di Cosmo|1999|p=355, note 5 (Manchu text printed in 1778, Chinese text completed in 1782)))((sfn|Rawski|1998|p=240 (Chinese text completed in 1780))) Even though this "Shamanic Code" did not fully unify shamanic practice among the Bannermen, it "helped systematize and reshape what had been a very fluid and diverse belief system".((sfn|Rawski|1998|p=298))

== Northeast shamanism == 
((main|Northeast China folk religion)) 
Shamanism is practiced in [[Northeast China]] and is considered different from those of central and southern Chinese folk religion, as it resulted from the interaction of Han religion with folk religion practices of other Tungusic people such as [[Manchu shamanism]]. The shaman would perform various ritual functions for groups of believers and local communities, such as moon drum dance and chūmǎxiān (出馬仙 "riding for the immortals").

== Modern Shamanism ==
Shamanism saw a decline due to [[Neo-Confucianism]] labeling it as untutored and disorderly.((sfn|Yang|2015)) This was furthered in the 19th century with the arrival of Western [[imperialism]]'s view of shamanism as superstition,((sfn|Yang|2015)) opposing their view of science and [[Western religions|western religion]]. The final hit was [[History of the People's Republic of China (1949–1976)|Maoist China]] causing all religious practices to disappear from public spaces.((sfn|Yang|2015)) While spirit mediums have begun reappearing (mostly in rural China) since the 1980s,((sfn|Yang|2015)) they operate with a low profile, often working from their homes, relying on word of mouth to generate business, or in newly built temples under a [[Chinese Taoist Association|Taoist Association]] membership card to be legitimate under the law.((sfn|Yang|2015)) The term shamanism and the religion itself has been critiqued by Western scholars due to an unfair and limited comparison to more favored religions such as [[Christianity]] and other modern and more documented religions in Western society.((sfn|DuBois|2011))

Today, the term shamanism has a somewhat negative stigma. Spirit mediums are often viewed as scammers, and are frequently portrayed as such in television shows and comedies.((sfn|Yang|2015)) Along with the focus on science, modern medicine, and [[material culture]] in China (which created serious doubt in spiritual practices), shamanism is viewed as an opposition to the modern focus of science and medicine in the pursuit of modernizing.((sfn|Yang|2015)) The marginalization of shamanism is one of the reasons for it mostly being practiced in rural or less developed areas or in small towns, along with the lack of enforcement of anti-shamanism policies among authorities in rural areas (either because they believe in Shamanism themselves or "look the other way in concession to local beliefs"). Shamanistic practices today include controlling the weather, healing diseases modern medicine can not treat, exorcism of ghosts and demons, and seeing or divining the future.((sfn|Xing|Murray|2018))

Shamanism's decrease in popularity is not reflected in all areas. It still maintains popularity in many areas in southern China (such as in [[Chaoshan]]) and rural northern China.  Taiwan (although Taiwan tried to ban Shamanism, in the end only restricting it) still have many who openly practice without the stigma seen in other parts of China.

==See also==
* [[Chinese folk religion]]
* [[Chinese ritual mastery traditions]]
* [[Nuo folk religion]]
* [[Taoism]]

==References==
((reflist))

==Bibliography==
* ((cite book |last1=di Cosmo |first1=Nicola |chapter=Manchu shamanic ceremonies at the Qing court |pages=352–398 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qgYdycfeJyAC&pg=PA352 |editor1-last=McDermott |editor1-first=Joseph P. |title=State and Court Ritual in China |date=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-62157-1 ))
* ((cite journal |last1=DuBois |first1=Thomas A. |title=Trends in Contemporary Research on Shamanism |journal=Numen |date=2011 |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=100–128 |doi=10.1163/156852710X514339-2 |jstor=23045924 ))
* ((cite journal |last1=Michael |first1=Thomas |title=Shamanism Theory and the Early Chinese 'Wu' |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion |date=2015 |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=649–696 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/lfv034 |jstor=24488180 ))
* ((cite book |last1=Eichhorn |first1=Werner |title=Die Religionen Chinas |series=Die Religionen der Menschheit |date=1973 |publisher=W. Kohlhammer |isbn=978-3-17-216031-4 ))
* ((cite book |last1=Libbrecht |first1=Ulrich |title=Within the Four Seas--: Introduction to Comparative Philosophy |date=2007 |publisher=Peeters Publishers |isbn=978-90-429-1812-2 ))
* ((cite book |last1=Nelson |first1=Sarah M. |last2=Matson |first2=Rachel A. |last3=Roberts |first3=Rachel M. |last4=Rock |first4=Chris |last5=Stencel |first5=Robert E. |year=2006 |title=Archaeoastronomical Evidence for Wuism at the Hongshan Site of Niuheliang |s2cid=6794721 |url=http://portfolio.du.edu/downloadItem/62721 ))
* ((cite book |editor1-last=Nadeau |editor1-first=Randall L. |title=The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions |date=2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9031-2 ))
* ((cite book |last1=Rawski |first1=Evelyn S. |title=The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions |date=1998 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-92679-0 ))
* ((cite book |editor1-last=Waldau |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Patton |editor2-first=Kimberley |title=A Communion of Subjects: Animals in Religion, Science, and Ethics |date=2009 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-13643-3 ))
* ((cite book |first1=Arthur |last1=Waley |title=The Nine Songs: a Study of Shamanism in Ancient China |location=London |year=1955 |url=https://archive.org/details/ninesongsstudyof00quyu ))
* ((cite journal |last1=Xing |first1=Haiyan |last2=Murray |first2=Gerald |title=The Evolution of Chinese Shamanism: A Case Study from Northwest China |journal=Religions |date=3 December 2018 |volume=9 |issue=12 |pages=397 |doi=10.3390/rel9120397 |doi-access=free ))
* ((cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Mayfair |title=Shamanism and Spirit Possession in Chinese Modernity: Some Preliminary Reflections on a Gendered Religiosity of the Body |journal=Review of Religion and Chinese Society |date=6 May 2015 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=51–86 |doi=10.1163/22143955-00201001 ))
* ((cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Hong |last2=Hriskos |first2=Constantine |title=Contemporary Chinese Shamanism:The Reinvention of Tradition |journal=Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine |date=June 2003 |volume=27 |issue=2 |url=https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/contemporary-chinese-shamanismthe-reinvention-tradition ))

;Further
* ((cite book |last1=Coblin |first1=W. South |title=A Sinologist's Handlist of Sino-Tibetan Lexical Comparisons |date=1986 |publisher=Steyler Verlag |isbn=978-3-87787-208-6 ))
* ((cite journal |last1=Laufer |first1=Berthold |title=Origin of the Word Shaman |journal=American Anthropologist |date=1917 |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=361–371 |doi=10.1525/aa.1917.19.3.02a00020 |jstor=660223 |doi-access=free ))
* ((cite journal |last1=Mair |first1=Victor H. |authorlink=Victor H. Mair |title=Old Sinitic <!-- not a typo -->*Mᵞag<!-- -->, Old Persian Maguš, and English 'Magician' |journal=Early China |date=1990 |volume=15 |pages=27–47 |doi=10.1017/S0362502800004995 |jstor=23351579 |s2cid=192107986 ))
* ((cite book |last1=Schuessler |first1=Axel |year=2007 |title=An Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese |publisher=University of Hawaii Press ))

==External links==
* Max Dashu. ''[http://www.suppressedhistories.net/goddess/xiwangmu.html Xi Wangmu, the shamanic great goddess of China]''.

((Religion topics))

[[Category:Chinese folk religion]]
[[Category:Shamanism in China]]

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