Within Christianity, there are a variety of views on sexual orientation and homosexuality. The view that various Bible passages speak of homosexuality as immoral or sinful emerged in the first millennium AD, and has since become entrenched in many Christian denominations through church doctrine and the wording of various translations of the Bible.[1][2]
In the present day, there are a wide variety of views within Christianity on homosexuality and sexual orientation, with some scholars of Christianity contesting the notion that scripture speaks explicitly of homosexuality as a sin against God.[2]: 42 Within a Christian denomination, individual believers and the groups they belong to may hold different views, and not all members of a denomination necessarily support their church's views on homosexuality. Most Christian denominations teach that homosexual behavior and acts are sinful.[2]Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism officially condemn homosexual activity as sin. Various mainline Protestant denominations have taken a supportive stance towards blessing homosexual clergy and same-sex marriage while others have not.
The extent to which the Bible mentions the subject, whether or not it is condemned, and whether the various passages apply today, have become contentious topics in the 20th and 21st centuries. Significant debate has arisen over the proper interpretation of the Levitical code; the narrative of Sodom and Gomorrah; and various Pauline passages, and whether these verses condemn same-sex sexual activities.[1]
Lot prevents sodomites from raping the angels, Heinrich Aldegrever, 1555.Execution by fire and torture of five homosexual Franciscan friars, Bruges, 26 July 1578Christian protesters at a 2006 gay pride event in San Francisco
The Catholic Church views as sinful any sexual act not related to procreation by a couple joined in marriage.[14][15] The Church states that "homosexual tendencies" are "objectively disordered", but does not consider the tendency itself to be sinful but rather a temptation toward sin.[14][16]
The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that "men and women who have deep-seated homosexual tendencies[...] must be accepted with respect, compassion, and sensitivity" and that "every sign of unjust discrimination in their regard should be avoided."[14] The Church opposes criminal penalties against homosexuality.[17] The Catholic Church requires those who are attracted to people of the same (or opposite) sex to practise chastity, because it teaches that sexuality should only be practised within marriage, which includes chaste sex as permanent, procreative, heterosexual, and monogamous. The Vatican distinguishes between "deep-seated homosexual tendencies" and the "expression of a transitory problem", in relation to ordination to the priesthood; saying in a 2005 document that homosexual tendencies "must be clearly overcome at least three years before ordination to the diaconate."[18] A 2011 report based on telephone surveys of self-identified American Catholics conducted by the Public Religion Research Institute found that 56% believe that sexual relations between two people of the same sex are not sinful.[19][20] Research indicates that the Catholic Church's teachings on sexuality are "a major source of conflict and distress" to LGBT Catholics.[21]
On March 11, 2023, the Synodal Path with support of over 80 percentage of German Roman Catholic bishops allowed blessing ceremonies for same-sex couples in all 27 German Roman Catholic diocese.[28][29][30] A similar decision had been taken a few months earlier by the Flemish bishops of the Episcopal Conference of Belgium.[31] Both decisions received strong condemnation by the Holy See and by conservative Catholic clergy: Cardinal Pietro Parolin stated that the German bishops had no authority over the issue and Cardinal Wim Eijk urged Flemish bishops to withdraw their decision.[32][33]
On December 18, 2023, blessings of same-sex couples in the document Fiducia supplicans were approved by Pope Francis and published by the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith.[34][35][36][37][38] However, "it is not a formal liturgical blessing and does not give the impression that the Catholic Church is blessing the union as if it were a marriage".[39]
Orthodox churches
The Eastern Orthodox churches condemn homosexual acts.[40] The Orthodox Church shares a long history of church teachings and canon law with the Catholic Church and has a similar conservative stance on homosexuality. Some Orthodox Church jurisdictions, such as the Orthodox Church in America, have taken the approach of welcoming people with "homosexual feelings and emotions", while encouraging them to work towards "overcoming its harmful effects in their lives", while not allowing the sacraments to people who seek to justify homosexual activity.[41][42] Other Orthodox Churches, such as those in Eastern Europe and Greece, view homosexuality less favourably. The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America lists homosexuality along with fornication, adultery, and more because of the thinking that homosexuality breaks up the institution of marriage and family.[43] A 2017 Pew Research Center poll found that the majority of Orthodox Christians in the Eastern European and former USSR states surveyed believe that homosexuality "should not be accepted by society"; 45% of Orthodox Christians in Greece and 31% in the United States answered the same way.[44]
In July 2022, Archbishop Elpidophoros of America baptized two babies adopted by clothing designers Evanggelos Bousis and Peter Dundas, making him the first Greek Orthodox bishop to baptize children adopted by gay couples.[45] According to the metropolitan in whose diocese the baptism took place (Antonios of Glyfada), Elpidophoros did not inform him in advance that the baptism in question was to be performed for a gay couple.[46] Metropolitan Antonios reported Elpidophoros to the Holy Synod of the Church of Greece, which issued a formal protest to both Elpidophoros and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.[47]
LGBT-affirming denominations regard homosexuality as a natural occurrence. The United Church of Christ celebrates gay marriage,[55] and some parts of the Anglican[56] and Lutheran[57] churches allow for the blessing of gay unions. The United Church of Canada also allows same-sex marriage, and views sexual orientation as a gift from God. Within the Anglican Communion, there are openly gay clergy; for example, Gene Robinson is an openly gay Bishop in the US Episcopal Church. Within the Lutheran communion, there are openly gay clergy, too; for example, bishop Eva Brunne is an openly lesbian bishop in the Church of Sweden. Such religious groups and denominations interpret scripture and doctrine in a way that leads them to accept that homosexuality is morally acceptable, and a natural occurrence. For example, in 1988 the United Church of Canada, that country's largest Protestant denomination, affirmed that "a) All persons, regardless of their sexual orientation, who profess Jesus Christ and obedience to Him, are welcome to be or become full members of the Church; and b) All members of the Church are eligible to be considered for the Ordered Ministry."[58] In 2000, the Church's General Assembly further affirmed that "human sexual orientations, whether heterosexual or homosexual, are a gift from God and part of the marvelous diversity of creation."[59]
In addition, some Christian denominations such as the Moravian Church, believe that the Bible speaks negatively of homosexual acts but, as research on the matter continues, the Moravian Church seeks to establish a policy on homosexuality and the ordination of homosexuals.[60] In 2014, Moravian Church in Europe allowed blessings of same-sex unions.[61]
Liberal Quakers, those in membership of Britain Yearly Meeting and Friends General Conference in the US approve of same-sex marriage and union. Quakers were the first Christian group in the United Kingdom to advocate for equal marriage and Quakers in Britain formally recognised same-sex relationships in 1963.[62][63][64]
The United Methodist Church elected a lesbian bishop in 2016, and on 7 May 2018, the Council of Bishops proposed the One Church Plan, which would allow individual pastors and regional church bodies to decide whether to ordain LGBT clergy and perform same-sex weddings.[65] On 26 February 2019, a special session of the General Conference rejected the One Church Plan and voted to strengthen its official opposition to same-sex marriages and ordaining openly LGBT clergy.[66]
Since 1998, the Anglican Church has reassured people with same sex attraction they are loved by God and are welcomed as full members of the Body of Christ. The Church leadership has a variety of views in regard to homosexual expression and ordination. Some expressions of sexuality are considered sinful including "promiscuity, prostitution, incest, pornography, paedophilia, predatory sexual behaviour, and sadomasochism (all of which may be heterosexual and homosexual)". The Church is concerned with pressures on young people to engage sexually and encourages abstinence.[67][68]
At the 13th Lambeth Conference in 1998, homosexuality was the most hotly debated issue. It was finally decided, by a vote of 526–70, to pass a resolution (1.10) calling for a "listening process" but stating (in an amendment passed by a vote of 389–190)[69] that "homosexual practice" (not necessarily orientation) is "incompatible with Scripture".[70] Reflecting on resolution 1.10 in the lead up to Lambeth 2022, Angela Tilby recalled the intervention of Bishop Michael Bourke, who successfully proposed an amendment which said: "We commit ourselves to listen to the experience of homosexual persons".[71] Tilby considered that while the amendment had appeared inconsequential at the time, it had indeed been significant: she said that the idea of "patient listening" underpinned the Church of England's process "Living in Love and Faith".[71]
The Seventh-day Adventist Church "recognizes that every human being is valuable in the sight of God, and seeks to minister to all men and women [including homosexuals] in the spirit of Jesus," while maintaining that homosexual sex itself is forbidden in the Bible. "Jesus affirmed the dignity of all human beings and reached out compassionately to persons and families suffering the consequences of sin. He offered caring ministry and words of solace to struggling people, while differentiating His love for sinners from His clear teaching about sinful practices."[83]
Confessional Lutheran churches teach that it is sinful to have homosexual desires, even if they do not lead to homosexual activity.[85] The Doctrinal statement issued by the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod states that making a distinction between homosexual orientation and the act of homosexuality is confusing:
We cannot limit the sin of homosexuality to deeds but not desires, any more than we can limit heterosexual sin to deeds but not desires. Scripture clearly includes desires and inclinations toward sinful actions in the category of sin (Mt 5:27–28). This is true of both homosexual and heterosexual sin.[86]
However, confessional Lutherans also warn against selective morality which harshly condemns homosexuality while treating other sins more lightly.[86]
Evangelical churches
The positions of the evangelical churches are varied, according to denominations.[87][88] Some evangelical denominations have adopted neutral positions, leaving the choice to local churches to decide for same-sex marriage.[89][90] Others strongly oppose same-sex marriage, same-sex sexual activity, and expression of gay/lesbian/bisexual identity generally.[91][92]
Evangelical Conservative positions
Some Evangelical Christians regard homosexual acts as sinful[91] and think they should not be accepted by society.[93] They tend to interpret biblical verses on homosexual acts to mean that the heterosexual family was created by God[94] to be the bedrock of civilization and that same-sex relationships contradict God's design for marriage and is not his will.[92][95][96][97][98] Christians who oppose homosexual relationships sometimes argue that same-gender sexual activity is a sin.[99]
In opposing interpretations of the Bible that are supportive of homosexual relationships, conservative Christians have argued for the reliability of the Bible,[100][101] and the meaning of texts related to homosexual acts,[96][102] while often seeing what they call the diminishing of the authority of the Bible by many homosexual authors as being ideologically driven.[103]
As an alternative to a school-sponsored Day of Silence opposing bullying of LGBT students, conservative Christians organized a Golden Rule Initiative, where they passed out cards saying "As a follower of Christ, I believe that all people are created in the image of God and therefore deserve love and respect."[104] Others created a Day of Dialogue to oppose what they believe is the silencing of Christian students who make public their opposition to homosexuality.
On 29 August 2017, the Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood released a manifesto on human sexuality known as the "Nashville Statement". The statement was signed by 150 evangelical leaders, and includes 14 points of belief.[105]
Fundamentalist position
It is in some fundamentalist conservative positions, that there are anti-LGBT activists on TV or radio who accuse homosexual people of a gay agenda and of being responsible for social problems, such as terrorism.[106][107][108][109] Some fundamentalists also regularly accuse homosexuals of being responsible for natural disasters.[110][111] Some evangelical churches in Uganda strongly oppose homosexuality and homosexuals. They have campaigned for laws criminalizing homosexuality.[112]
Moderate position
Some churches have a moderateConservative position. Although they do not approve homosexual practices, they show sympathy and respect for homosexuals.[113] Churches thus see themselves as “welcoming, but not affirming”.[114][115] This expression has its origin in the book Welcoming but Not Affirming: An Evangelical Response to Homosexuality published in 1998 by the American Baptist theologian Stanley Grenz.[116]
Organizations
The French Evangelical Alliance, a member of the European Evangelical Alliance and the World Evangelical Alliance, adopted on 12 October 2002, through its National Council, a document entitled Foi, espérance et homosexualité ("Faith, Hope and Homosexuality"), in which homophobia, hatred and rejection of homosexuals are condemned, but which denies homosexual practices and full church membership of unrepentant homosexuals and those who approve of these practices.[117] In 2015, the Conseil national des évangéliques de France (French National Council of Evangelicals) reaffirmed its position on the issue by opposing marriage of same-sex couples, while not rejecting homosexuals, but wanting to offer them more than a blessing; an accompaniment and a welcome.[118]
The French evangelical pastor Philippe Auzenet, a chaplain of the association Oser en parler, regularly intervenes on the subject in the media. It promotes dialogue and respect, as well as sensitization in order to better understand homosexuals.[119] He also said in 2012 that Jesus would go to a gay bar, because he was going to all people with love.[120]
A 2014 survey reported that 43% of white evangelical American Christians between the ages of 18 and 33 supported same-sex marriage.[123] Some evangelical churches accept homosexuality and celebrate gay weddings.[124][125] The change in beliefs in favor of gay marriage in evangelical churches has certain consequences for them.[126] Various churches thus received an excommunication from their Christian denomination for not respecting the confession of faith.[127] Other churches have faced significant departures of members from their congregations, seeing their financial resources diminish.[128]
Neutral positions
Some evangelical associations have adopted neutral positions, leaving the choice to local churches to decide for same-sex marriage.[89][90]
Denominational positions
Anabaptism
Most Mennonite associations hold a conservative position on homosexuality.[129]
The Brethren Mennonite Council for LGBT Interests was founded in 1976 in the US and has member churches of different associations in the US and Canada.[129]
Restorationist churches, such as Seventh-Day Adventists, generally teach that homosexuals are 'broken' and can be 'fixed'. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that "The Bible condemns sexual activity that is not between a husband and wife, whether it is homosexual or heterosexual conduct. (1 Corinthians 6:18)[...] While the Bible disapproves of homosexual acts, it does not condone hatred of homosexuals or homophobia. Instead, Christians are directed to "respect everyone."—1 Peter 2:17, Good News Translation."[142]The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints said in 2015 that it officially welcomes its gay and lesbian members, if they choose sexual abstinence.[143] The Community of Christ, a branch of Mormonism, fully accepts LGBT persons, performs weddings for gay and lesbian couples, and ordains LGBT members. Within the Stone-Campbell aligned restorationist churches the views are divergent. The churches of Christ (A Capella) and the Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ mostly adhere to a very conservative ideology; socially, politically, and religiously and are generally not accepting of openly LGBT members and will not perform weddings for gay and lesbian couples. The Disciples of Christ, is fully accepting of LGBT persons, often performs weddings for gay and lesbian couples, and ordains LGBT members. The United Church of Christ is an officially "open and affirming" church. Other Restorationist churches such as Millerite churches, have taken mixed positions but are increasingly accepting with some of their congregations fully accepting LGBT persons in all aspects of religious and political life.
In the 20th century, theologians like Jürgen Moltmann, Hans Küng, John Robinson, Bishop David Jenkins, Don Cupitt, and Bishop Jack Spong challenged traditional theological positions and understandings of the Bible; following these developments some have suggested that passages have been mistranslated or that they do not refer to what is in the modern day understood as "homosexuality."[citation needed] Clay Witt, a minister in the Metropolitan Community Church, explains how theologians and commentators like John Shelby Spong, George Edwards and Michael England interpret injunctions against certain sexual acts as being originally intended as a means of distinguishing religious worship between Abrahamic and the surrounding pagan faiths, within which homosexual acts featured as part of idolatrous religious practices: "England argues that these prohibitions should be seen as being directed against sexual practices of fertility cult worship. As with the earlier reference from Strong's, he notes that the word 'abomination' used here is directly related to idolatry and idolatrous practices throughout the Hebrew Testament. Edwards makes a similar suggestion, observing that 'the context of the two prohibitions in Leviticus 18:22 and Leviticus 20:13 suggest that what is opposed is not same-sex activity outside the cult, as in the modern secular sense, but within the cult identified as Canaanite'".[144]
In 1986, the Evangelical and Ecumenical Women's Caucus (EEWC), then known as the Evangelical Women's Caucus International, passed a resolution stating: "Whereas homosexual people are children of God, and because of the biblical mandate of Jesus Christ that we are all created equal in God's sight, and in recognition of the presence of the lesbian minority in EWCI, EWCI takes a firm stand in favor of civil rights protection for homosexual persons."[145]
Some Christians believe that Biblical passages have been mistranslated or that these passages do not refer to LGBT orientation as currently understood.[146] Liberal Christian scholars, like conservative Christian scholars, accept earlier versions of the texts that make up the Bible in Hebrew or Greek. However, within these early texts there are many terms that modern scholars have interpreted differently from previous generations of scholars.[147][148][149] There are concerns with copying errors, forgery, and biases among the translators of later Bibles.[147][148][149] They consider some verses such as those they say support slavery[147] or the inferior treatment of women[148] as not being valid today, and against the will of God present in the context of the Bible. They cite these issues when arguing for a change in theological views on sexual relationships to what they say is an earlier view. They differentiate among various sexual practices, treating rape, prostitution, or temple sex rituals as immoral and those within committed relationships as positive regardless of sexual orientation. They view certain verses, which they believe refer only to homosexual rape, as not relevant to consensual homosexual relationships.[149]
Yale professor John Boswell has argued that a number of Early Christians entered into homosexual relationships,[150] and that certain Biblical figures had homosexual relationships, such as Ruth and her mother-in-law Naomi, Daniel and the court official Ashpenaz, and David and King Saul's son Jonathan.[151] Boswell has also argued that adelphopoiesis, a rite bonding two men, was akin to a religiously sanctioned same-sex union. Having partaken in such a rite, a person was prohibited from entering into marriage or taking monastic vows, and the choreography of the service itself closely parallelled that of the marriage rite.[150][152][153] His views have not found wide acceptance, and opponents have argued that this rite sanctified a platonic brotherly bond, not a homosexual union.[153] He also argued that condemnation of homosexuality began only in the 12th century.[154] Boswell's critics[155] point out that many earlier doctrinal sources condemn homosexuality as a sin even if they do not prescribe a specific punishment, and that Boswell's arguments are based on sources which reflected a general trend towards harsher penalties, rather than a change in doctrine, from the 12th century onwards.
Desmond Tutu, the former Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town and a Nobel Peace Prize winner, described homophobia as a "crime against humanity" and "every bit as unjust" as apartheid:[156] "We struggled against apartheid in South Africa, supported by people the world over, because black people were being blamed and made to suffer for something we could do nothing about; our very skins. It is the same with sexual orientation. It is a given.[...] We treat them [gays and lesbians] as pariahs and push them outside our communities. We make them doubt that they too are children of God – and this must be nearly the ultimate blasphemy. We blame them for what they are."[157]
Modern gay Christian leader Justin R. Cannon promotes what he calls "Inclusive Orthodoxy" ('orthodoxy' in this sense is not to be confused with the Eastern Orthodox Church). He explains on his ministry website: "Inclusive Orthodoxy is the belief that the Church can and must be inclusive of LGBT individuals without sacrificing the Gospel and the Apostolic teachings of the Christian faith."[158] Cannon's ministry takes a unique and distinct approach from modern liberal Christians while still supporting homosexual relations. His ministry affirms the divine inspiration of the Bible, the authority of Tradition, and says "...that there is a place within the full life and ministry of the Christian Church for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender Christians, both those who are called to lifelong celibacy and those who are partnered."[159]
Today, many religious people are becoming more affirming of same-sex relationships, even in denominations with official stances against homosexuality. In the United States, people in denominations who are against same-sex relationships are liberalizing quickly, though not as quickly as those in more affirming groups.[160] This social change is creating tension within many denominations, and even schisms and mass walk-outs among Mormons and other conservative groups.[161]
Pope Francis voiced support for same-sex civil unions during an interview in a documentary film, Francesco, which was premiered at the Rome Film Festival on 21 October 2020.[162]
Studies in the US show more LGBT individuals identify as Protestant than Catholic.[163][164][165]George Barna, a conservative Christian author and researcher, conducted a survey in the United States in 2009 that found gay and lesbian people having a Christian affiliation were more numerous than had been presumed. He characterized some of his leading conclusions from the data as follows:[166] "People who portray gay adults as godless, hedonistic, Christian bashers are not working with the facts. A substantial majority of gays cite their faith as a central facet of their life, consider themselves to be Christian, and claim to have some type of meaningful personal commitment to Jesus Christ active in their life today." Barna also found that LGBT people were more likely to interpret faith as an individual rather than a collective experience.[167]
Candace Chellew-Hodge, liberal Christian lesbian founder of the online magazine Whosoever, responded to the findings: "All in all, I'm grateful for Barna even wandering into the subject of gay and lesbian religious belief. I think his study is important and can go a long way to dispelling the old "gays vs. God" dichotomy that too often gets played out in the media. However, his overall message is still harmful: Gays and lesbians are Christians – they're just not as good as straight ones."[168] She argued that Barna had formulated his report with undue irony and skepticism, and that he had failed to take into account the reasons for the data which enkindled his "arrière pensée." The reason why far fewer homosexuals attend church, she argued, is that there are far fewer churches who will accept them. Equally, gays and lesbians do not see the Bible as unequivocally true because they are forced by its use against them to read it more closely and with less credulity, leading them to note its myriad contradictions.[168]
Organizations for homosexual Christians exist across a wide range of beliefs and traditions. The interdenominational Q Christian Fellowship (formerly Gay Christian Network) has some members who affirm same-sex relationships and others who commit themselves to celibacy, groups it refers to as "Side A" and "Side B", respectively.[169][170] According to founder Justin Lee:
We're just trying to get people together who experience attraction to the same sex, however they have handled that, and who love Jesus and say, OK, you are welcome here, and then let's pray together and figure out where God wants us to take it.[171]
Some organizations cater exclusively to homosexual Christians who do not want to have gay sex, or attraction; the goals of these organizations vary. Some Christian groups focus on simply refraining from gay sex, such as Courage International and North Star.[172] Other groups additionally encourage gay members to reduce or eliminate same-sex attractions. Love Won Out and the now-defunct Exodus International are examples of such ministries. These groups are sometimes referred to as ex-gay organizations, though many no longer use the term. Alan Chambers, the president of Exodus, says the term incorrectly implies a complete change in sexual orientation,[173] though the group Parents and Friends of Ex-Gays and Gays continues to use the term. In addition, individual Christians identifying as gay who want to subscribe to the conservative ethic are becoming more vocal themselves.[174]
Gay Christian writer and actor Peterson Toscano argues that organizations promoting orientation change are a "ruse".[175] An organization he co-founded, Beyond Ex-Gay, supports people who feel they have been wounded by such organizations.[176]
In Europe, working within the worldwide Anglican Communion on a range of discrimination issues, including those of LGBT clergy and people in the church, is Inclusive Church.[183] The longest standing groups for lesbian and gay Christians in the UK, were Quest (for lgbt Catholics) and Metropolitan Community Church (UK) both founded in 1973; followed in 1976 by the non-denominational Lesbian and Gay Christian Movement;[184] specifically aimed to meet the needs of lesbian and gay evangelicals, there is the Evangelical Fellowship for Lesbian and Gay Christians;[185] specifically working within the Church of England is Changing Attitude,[186] which also takes an international focus in working for gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender affirmation within the Anglican Communion.[187]
Sociologist Richard N. Pitt argues that these organizations are only available to LGBT members of liberal denominations, as opposed to those in conservative denominations. His review of the literature on gay Christians suggests that these organizations not only represent the interests of Christians who attend their churches, but (like gay-friendly and gay-affirming churches) also give these members useful responses to homophobic and heterosexist rhetoric. His research shows that those LGBT Christians who stay at homophobic churches "kill the messenger"[188] by attacking the minister's knowledge about homosexuality, personal morality, focus on sin instead of forgiveness, and motivations for preaching against homosexuality.
Movement of pro-celibacy gay Christians
There is a movement of people who call themselves "gay Christians", but choose to practice celibacy.
[189][190] The movement is often positioned against both liberals and conservatives. Recognizing themselves as gay or bisexual, these people believe that their attraction to same-sex people, while present, does not allow them to have homosexual relationships. They often say that their Christian conversion did not instantly change their sexual desires. They insist that the church should always reject homosexual practices, but that it should welcome gay people.
Conversion therapies for people wishing to change sexual orientation have been associated with the movement.[194] Conversion therapy has been widely criticized and denounced by many major medical associations.[195] Studies have found that LGBT individuals who experienced conversion therapy reported significantly higher rates of depression, suicide attempts, and substance abuse than their peers who did not.[196][197][198]
In 2015, American theologian L. Gregory Jones has criticized some Christian churches for their lack of effort to interest young people in the Christian faith in a relevant way, while putting a lot of energy into talking negatively about homosexuality, which is even more boring for young people who want to work with the whole world.[200]
^ abcKoenig, Harold G.; Dykman, Jackson (2012). Religion and Spirituality in Psychiatry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 42–43. ISBN9780521889520. The earliest interpretations of [the story of Sodom and Gomorrah] focused on the Sodomites' arrogance and rudeness to strangers; God killed them for incivility to his angels. The theme of sexuality [being the sin of Sodom] emerged full force in the first century BC writings of Philo of Alexandria, a Jewish historian. Rabbinical writings about Sodom generally did not mention homosexuality.[...] However, over time, the homosexual interpretation won out[...] the overwhelming majority of Christian churches have maintained their positions that homosexual behavior is sinful and a threat to social morality.
^McCann, Christine A. (2010). Transgressing the Boundaries of Holiness: Sexual Deviance in the Early Medieval Penitential Handbooks of Ireland, England and France 500–1000 (PhD). Seton Hall University. p. 35. [B]y the later middle ages both the terms sodomy and 'the sin against nature' had expanded to include anything which was not heterosexual intercourse in the missionary position.
^"Same-Sex Marriage Legislation Offers a Win-Win Solution, Says The United Church of Canada," 2005-FEB-01, United Church of Canada, at: http://www.united-church.ca/
^"Some notable fundamentalist and conservative evangelical television and radio speakers frequently blame gays in America for an assortment of social problems, including terrorism (…)" in Roger E. Olson, The Westminster Handbook to Evangelical Theology, Westminster John Knox Press, USA, 2004, p. 315
^Jeffrey S. Siker, Homosexuality and Religion: An Encyclopedia, Greenwood Publishing Group, USA, 2007, p. 114
^Ralph R. Smith, Russel R. Windes, Progay/Antigay: The Rhetorical War Over Sexuality, SAGE Publications, USA, 2000, p. 29
^David Rayside, Faith, Politics, and Sexual Diversity in Canada and the United States, UBC Press, Canada, 2011, p. 73-74
Bates, Stephen (2004). A Church at War: Anglicans and Homosexuality. I.B. Tauris. ISBN1-85043-480-8.
Boswell, John (1980). Christianity, social tolerance, and homosexuality: Gay people in Western Europe from the beginning of the Christian era to the fourteenth century. University of Chicago Press. ISBN0-226-06710-6
Crompton, Louis, et al., (2003). Homosexuality and Civilization Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN0-674-01197-X
Etengoff, C.; Daiute, C. (2014). "Family Members' Uses of Religion in Post–Coming-Out Conflicts With Their Gay Relative". Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. 6 (1): 33–43. doi:10.1037/a0035198.
Etengoff, C. & Daiute, C., (2014/5). Clinicians' perspectives of religious families' and gay men's negotiation of sexual orientation disclosure and prejudice, Journal of Homosexuality 62(4).
Etengoff, C. & Daiute, C. 2014/15). Online Coming Out Communications between Gay Men and their Religious Family Allies: A Family of Choice and Origin Perspective, Journal of GLBT Family Studies.
Gagnon, Robert A.J. (2002). The Bible and Homosexual Practice: Texts and Hermeneutics. Abingdon Press. ISBN0-687-02279-7
Harvey, John F., O.S.F.S. (1996). The Truth about Homosexuality: The Cry of the Faithful, introduction by Benedict J. Groeschel, C.F.R.. Ignatius Press. ISBN0-89870-583-5.
Hays, Katie; Chiasson, Susan A. (2021). Family of Origin, Family of Choice: Stories of Queer Christians. Michigan: Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN978-0-8028-7857-1
Helminiak, Daniel A. (2000). "Frequently Asked Questions About Being Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, or Transgender and Catholic" Dignity USA.
Hildegard of Bingen (c. 1142). "Scivias," Columba Hart and Jane Bishop, translators; New York: Paulist Press, 1990
Johansson, Warren (1992). "Whosoever Shall Say To His Brother, Racha." Studies in Homosexuality, Vol XII: Homosexuality and Religion and Philosophy. Ed. Wayne Dynes & Stephen Donaldson. New York & London: Garland, pp. 212–214
Mader, Donald (1992). "The Entimos Pais of Matthew 8:5–13 and Luke 7:1–10" Studies in Homosexuality, Vol XII: Homosexuality and Religion and Philosophy. Ed. Wayne Dynes & Stephen Donaldson. New York & London: Garland, pp. 223–235.
Rodriguez, E.M. (2010). "At the intersection of Church and Gay: A review of the psychological research on Gay and Lesbian Christians". Journal of Homosexuality. 57 (1): 5–38. doi:10.1080/00918360903445806. PMID20069492. S2CID26155676.
Rodriguez, E. M.; Ouellette, S. C. (2000). "Gay and lesbian Christians: Homosexual and religious identity integration in the members and participants of a gay-positive church". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 39 (3): 333–347. doi:10.1111/0021-8294.00028.
Smith, Morton (1992). "Clement of Alexandria and Secret Mark: The Score at the End of the First Decade." Studies in Homosexuality, Vol XII: Homosexuality and Religion and Philosophy. Ed. Wayne Dynes & Stephen Donaldson. New York & London: Garland, pp. 295–307
LGBT portal
