Confessional Writing
A Catholic confessional box, in the Holy Cross Catholic Church in Offenburg. Confessional writing shares many features and associations with Catholic confessional practices.
Stylistic originsCatholic Confessional Practices; Life Writing.
Cultural originsThe Second World War;

Postmodernism; Psychoanalysis; The Cold-War;

American Literary Schools
FeaturesFirst-Person;

Direct, often Colloquial Language; Personal Revelations of Sin and Desire; Divulsion of Secrets; Self-Reflexivity;

Discussions of Personal and Historical Trauma
FormatsFiction and Non-Fiction;

Poetry; Prose; Graphic Novels; Biography and Memoir; Reality Television;

Visual Arts.
Subgenres
Confessional Poetry

Confessional writing is a literary style and genre that developed in American writing schools following the Second World War.[1][2] A prominent mode of confessional writing is confessional poetry, which emerged in the 1950s and 1960s. Confessional writing is often historically associated with Postmodernism due to the features which the modes share: including self-performativity and self-reflexivity; discussions of culturally taboo subjects; and the literary influences of personal conflict and historical trauma.[3] Confessional writing also has historical origins in Catholic confessional practices.[4] As such, confessional writing is congruent with psychoanalytic literary criticism.[5] Confessional writing is also a form of life writing, especially through the autobiography form.[6]

Confessional writing usually involves the disclosure of personal revelations and secrets, often in first-person, non-fiction forms such as diaries and memoirs.[2] Confessional writing often employs colloquial speech and direct language to invoke an immediacy between reader and author. Confessional writers also utilise this direct language to radically reduce the distance between the speaker-persona of a text and the writer's personal voice.[7] Confessional writing can also be fictive, such as in the hybrid form of the roman à clef.[8]

Though originating in American literary circles, by writers and poets such as Adrienne Rich, Robert Lowell, Sylvia Plath, and Anne Sexton, the style has gained global use concurrently with the growth of Postcolonial theory at the end of the 20th century,[9] especially throughout Eurasia and the Middle East.[10] Confessional writing has also influenced other mediums, including the visual arts and reality television.[6]

A highly influential movement, Confessional writing has been critiqued as narcissistic, self-indulgent, as well as a violation of the privacy of the private individuals which confessional writers depict.[11]

Development of the confessional writing genre

A photograph of Ludwig Wittgenstein, taken in 1930. Wittgenstein theorised on the psychological implications and mechanisms of confession as a cathartic act.

The confessional writing genre has historical roots in Catholic confessional practices.[4] Works such as St. Augustine's Confessions and Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Confessions are historic antecedents to the modern confessional genre in their depictions of secret emotions, personal revelations, and of sin.[12][13]

In the early 20th century, the growth of psychoanalysis increased academic interest in the psychological functions of confession itself.[14] Following their expatriation from wartime continental Europe to the United Kingdom and United States during the Second World War, eminent psychoanalytical theorists including Sigmund Freud, Heinz Hartmann, Ernst Kris, Rudolph Loewenstein, and Ludwig Wittgenstein began to theorise on the defence functions of ego in times of conflict.[15] Wittgenstein expounded on confession as a 'means of self-development,'[16] in that the catharsis facilitated by the act of confession allowed for closure, and the progression away from both unconscious and conscious suffering: writing in 1931 that 'a confession must be part of your new life.'[17]

The literary ‘confessional’ term was first attributed to a form of writing in 1959: by critic M.L. Rosenthal in response to the confessional poet Robert Lowell's seminal anthology Life Studies.[18][19] The anthology is widely regarded as a seminal confessional text, in the poet's revelations on his relationship to his parents, marital conflict, depression, and generational trauma.[19][20] Many Confessional Writers at the time were associated with or worked in American writing schools at institutions such as Boston University.[20] Though the style has since gained global use (See: Global influence), confessional writing emerged in America during the turbulent late 1950s and early 1960s, and was initially characterised by movements away from strictly metred verse to free verse.[1] Following the Second World War, the Holocaust, and during other collective traumas such as the Cold War, American ‘cultural alienation’[21] induced writers to externalise their internal, psychological anxieties and angsts[8] through their literary outputs.

The period was also marked by the secession of Modernism to Postmodernism,[22] the Civil Rights Movement, the Gay Rights Movement, and the onset of Second Wave Feminism and Postcolonialism.[2][4] As such, early confessional works, by writers such as Adrienne Rich, Sylvia Plath, Dan Guenther, and Robert Lowell encompass personal and social issues including distrust of metanarratives, solipsism, taboos, and the transgression of restrictive social roles.[23][24]

Contemporary confessional works encompass broader social issues, including drug-use, digital identity, popular culture, and political engagement.[10]

Key features and notable works

Confessional writing is often non-fictive and delivered in direct, first-person narration. Confessional writing usually involves the divulging and discussion of ‘shameful matters’,[25] including personal secrets and controversial perspectives in forms such as autobiography, diary, memoir, and also epistolary narratives.[26][2] Confessional writing often involves emotions such as shame, fear of ostracism, social discomfort, and disorder;[27] as well as empowerment, self-expression, and liberation.[23]

A building of the Boston University campus, a prominent institution during the early development of confessional writing.

Owing to the religious connotations of confession, confessional writing is often invocative of religious imagery as reflective of sin and desire.[20] The potential aims of confessional writing include the achievement of closure, catharsis, and the representation of socially marginalised perspectives.[9] Confessional Writing thus also may serve as a literary ‘therapeutic outlet.'[28]

Robert Lowell's Life Studies, an autobiographical suite of poems detailing Lowell's upbringing and personal family life, is often regarded as the seminal confessional work.[20] Other important works of confessional writing include Sylvia Plath's The Bell Jar, a roman à clef of Plath's descent into depression and suicide attempts whilst interning for Mademoiselle magazine.[29] The novel blends elements of fiction and non-fiction within the parameters of the confessional genre, by representing real people and events through a fictive façade: Mademoiselle magazine is replaced with the fictional Ladies' Day magazine, and Plath's own experience is surrogated by the protagonist, Esther Greenwood's perspective. Plath also initially published the novel under the pseudonym, 'Victoria Lucas.'[30]

More recent works of confessional writing include Codeine Diary, by Tom Andrews, a personal account of living with the disease haemophilia;[1] Girlhood, by Melissa Febos, an account of the development of the female body from adolescence into adulthood, and of the narrativity of the socially-constructed experience of femininity;[31] Trick Mirror: Reflections on Self-Delusion by Jia Tolentino¸ a confessional blend of personal essay and social criticism concerning the rise of the internet during the 1990s and early 2000s, as well as the fallacious digital identities which social media is productive of; Before I Say Goodbye by Ruth Picardie, a memoir of her terminal illness with breast cancer;[1] Bridget Jone’s Diary by Helen Fielding, a novel of the love life and entering of middle-age by the titular protagonist through the diary perspective;[1] and White City Blue by Tim Lott, a fictive account of the limits and stigmas of male friendship and in adulthood.[32]

Global influences and iterations

A photograph of Robert Lowell, a prominent and seminal confessional writer.

Though originating in American literary circles, the confessional writing style has gained global use with the growth of Postcolonial theory and globalisation at the end of the 20th century,[9] especially throughout Eurasia and the Middle East, with focuses on personal intersectionality.[10] Key ideas which global confessional writing explores include globalisation, cultural conflict, and the diasporic experience.[26][24][33]

The Cry of Winnie Mandela, a novel by Njabulo Ndebele, incorporates stylistic features of the confessional writing genre, including first-person narration and the divulging of personal histories, to critique the Apartheid regime, and to represent the experiences of ‘repression suffered by civilians and concealed by colonial occupying forces.[1]

Sticky Rice Homoeroticism and Queer Politics by Shinsuke Eguchi blends academic and confessional writing to autoethnographically critique and decolonise perceptions of homosexuality and internalised racism, combining academic elements of theory and criticism with literary and memoir-like representations of personal experience.[34]

Souvankham Thammavongsa’s poetic anthology Small Arguments utilises features of confessional writing in a ‘subtle probing of the world’ to depict the refugee experience in Canada and concerns of self-determination.[33]

A Mountainous Journey by Fadwa Tuqan investigates the struggles of the Palestinian people, through a confessional, intimate perspective, to challenge the patriarchal and colonial hegemonies which problematise the endurance of her people, and the place of women in Islamic society.[10]

Beirut Blues by Hanan al-Shaykht explores war-torn Beirut during the Lebanese Civil War, from the perspective of the young female narrator in confessional modes, including epistolary narratives.[26]

Influences on other media

Cartoonist and writer Alison Bechdel, who merged confessional writing conventions with the graphic novel form.

Confessional writing features and styles have translated into and influenced other non-literary forms: especially in contemporary art through the use of prominent confessional features such as the divulsion of personal secrets and the presentation of intimate and sometimes scandalous details of the artist's private lives.[35]

My Bed is a confessional artwork by Tracey Emin: depicting a dishevelled bed stained with bodily secretions and surrounded by personal effects including empty vodka bottles, condoms, and menstrual-blood-stained undergarments. The artwork caused public outcry and controversy: employing features of the confessional style — including the presentation of intimate personal effects and socially taboo objects —in challenging the acceptable limits of personal and artistic representation.[36][37]

French artist Louise Bourgeois also explored elements of confessional writing throughout her body of work, especially through representing her relationships with family members. Bourgeois' 1974 tableau The Destruction of the Father psychologically explored the artist's relationship to her father through biomorphic and phallic objects, presented in a crime-scene scenario — the implication being that the child has cannibalised their overbearing father.[38] The spider motif throughout Bourgeois' art, including in the Maman sculpture series, alludes to Bourgeois' relationship to her mother, and the nourishment and protection it was productive of.[39]

Candy Cheng's art installation Confessions, which has been exhibited across America, Central and Eastern Europe, invited viewers and members of the public to write anonymous confessions onto a wooden board and hang their confession on the work itself, with emphasis on features typical to the confessional writing genre including the catharsis of the act of confession, and the desire to reveal secrets.[40]

Fun Home and Are You My Mother? are both memoirs by American cartoonist Alison Bechdel, which incorporate features of confessional writing through the graphic novel medium.

Academics have also expounded on the self-performativity and confession-based format of reality television shows such as Big Brother as having roots in the confessional writing genre.[6] Critics have likewise highlighted the ubiquity of confessional 'self-disclosure'[41][35] in the public domains of social media and the internet, and how twenty-first century technologies are supplanting the traditional distinctions between an individual's public life and private self.[35][42]

Criticisms of the confessional writing genre

Michel Foucault in 1974. Foucault theorised on confession as an oppressive, hegemonic condition

A highly influential movement, confessional writing has been critiqued as narcissistic, self-indulgent, as well as a violation of the privacy of the private individuals which confessional writers depict.[11][7] Owing to the exclusively heterosexual and upper-class[19] White Anglo-Saxon Protestantism which characterises many of the early confessional writers, such as Robert Lowell and Sylvia Plath, the mode has been critiqued as solipsistic, 'classist, self assured, and elusive,'[43] as well as lacking diverse social and cultural perspectives.[44]

Further, theorist Michel Foucault explicated that confession, as an act inherent to the social structures of law, medicine, and faith, is a consolidated act of social oppression: confining subjects within traditional hegemonies of shame, guilt, and socially-constructed requirements of forgiveness.[45]

Feminist discourse is separated on the mode: whilst some theorists regard the depiction of issues such as sexual violence, eating disorders, and mental illness by female confessional writers as liberating, others view it as voyeuristic and objectifying.[2]

The New Formalism school of writing, a movement of the late 20th century which emphasised returns to formulaic and strictly metrical poetry, was formed in direct response to the dominance of confessional styles of poetry which were characterised by unfixed structures and free verse, forms denigrated by the school as lacking finesse and craft.[41][46]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f Schreiber, Paweł; Malicka, Joanna (2015). Narratives of the self. Frankfurt am Main [Germany]. ISBN 978-3-653-04504-8. OCLC 912318238.((cite book)): CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  2. ^ a b c d e Griffin, Gabriele (2017). A dictionary of gender studies (1st ed.). Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-183483-7. OCLC 994878353.((cite book)): CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  3. ^ Gill, Jo (2005). Gill, Jo (ed.). Modern Confessional Writing: New Critical Essays. London: Routledge. pp. 2–6. doi:10.4324/9780203449240. ISBN 9780203449240.
  4. ^ a b c "3. Sexuality and Confession (with James Bohman)", Masculinity and Morality, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, pp. 42–57, 2019-12-31, doi:10.7591/9781501728587-005, ISBN 9781501728587, S2CID 243637365, retrieved 2022-05-11
  5. ^ De Nervaux, Laure (2007-06-15). "The Freudian Muse: Psychoanalysis and the Problem of Self-Revelation in Sylvia Plath's "Daddy" and "Medusa"". E-rea. 5 (1). doi:10.4000/erea.186. ISSN 1638-1718.
  6. ^ a b c Grobe, Christopher (2017-11-07). Art of Confession. NYU Press. doi:10.18574/nyu/9781479829170.001.0001. ISBN 978-1-4798-2917-0.
  7. ^ a b Hart, James D.; Leininger, Phillip W. (2006). The Oxford companion to American literature. Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 0-19-506548-4. OCLC 180019666.
  8. ^ a b Greenberg, Arielle; Klaver, Becca (2009). "Mad Girls' Love Songs: Two Women Poets—a Professor and Graduate Student—Discuss Sylvia Plath, Angst, and the Poetics of Female Adolescence". College Literature. 36 (4): 179–207. doi:10.1353/lit.0.0087. ISSN 1542-4286. S2CID 144248848.
  9. ^ a b c Ahima, K. S. (2021). "Catharsis of Confessional Writing: A Comparative Study of Sylvia Plath's Bell Jar and Kamala Das's My Story". Language in India. 21 (10): 79–91.
  10. ^ a b c d Mir, Salam (2013-10-01). "Political Engagement: The Palestinian Confessional Genre". Arab Studies Quarterly. 35 (4). doi:10.13169/arabstudquar.35.4.0360. ISSN 0271-3519.
  11. ^ a b Leader, Zachary (2015). On life-writing. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-870406-5. OCLC 932053414.
  12. ^ Bathory, Peter Dennis (May 1997). "Augustine through a modern prism". Society. 34 (4): 73–76. doi:10.1007/bf02912214. ISSN 0147-2011. S2CID 147204355.
  13. ^ Hartle, Ann (1983). The Modern Self in Rousseau's Confessions: a Reply to St. Augustine. University of Notre Dame Press.
  14. ^ Parker, Ian (2019-03-20). Psychoanalysis, Clinic and Context: Subjectivity, History and Autobiography (1st ed.). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780429031991. ISBN 978-0-429-03199-1. S2CID 171775824.
  15. ^ Kuriloff, Emily A. (2013-08-15). Contemporary Psychoanalysis and the Legacy of the Third Reich. doi:10.4324/9780203845882. ISBN 9781136930416.
  16. ^ Beale, Jonathan (2018-09-18). "Opinion | Wittgenstein's Confession". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2022-05-18.
  17. ^ Peters, Michael A. “Writing the Self: Wittgenstein, Confession and Pedagogy.” Education, Philosophy and Politics, Routledge, 2012, pp. 39–53, https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203155899-6.
  18. ^ Rosenthal, M. L. (1959) Poetry as Confession. The Nation.
  19. ^ a b c Foundation, Poetry (2022-05-17). "Confessional Poetry". Poetry Foundation. Retrieved 2022-05-18.
  20. ^ a b c d Hayes, Paula (2013). Robert Lowell and the Confessional Voice. Peter Lang Inc., International Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4539-0836-5. OCLC 1058678145.
  21. ^ Molesworth, Charles (1976). ""With Your Own Face On": The Origins and Consequences of Confessional Poetry". Twentieth Century Literature. 22 (2): 163–178. doi:10.2307/440682. ISSN 0041-462X. JSTOR 440682.
  22. ^ J. H. Dettmar, (2006). Modernism, in The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature, ed. David Scott Kastan. Oxford University Press, 2006.
  23. ^ a b Bauer, Dale M. (2005). "Risky Writing: Self-Disclosure and Healing through Writing". JAC. 25 (1): 213–218. JSTOR 20866684 – via JSTOR.
  24. ^ a b Bevir, Mark; Hargis, Jill; Rushing, Sara, eds. (2020-09-19). Histories of Postmodernism. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203724484. ISBN 978-0-203-72448-4. S2CID 170443601.
  25. ^ Dolce, Joe. (1977). Dirty Laundry: The Art of Confessional Writing. Meanjin 76(4), 237–50.
  26. ^ a b c El Hamamsy, Walid; الحمامصي, وليد (2010). "Epistolary Memory: Revisiting Traumas in Women's Writing / المراسلة والذاكرة: عود على الفجيعة في الكتابات ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺎﺋﻴﺔ". Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics (30): 150–175. JSTOR 27929851 – via JSTOR.
  27. ^ Garg, Mridula (2010). "Writing the Self". India International Centre Quarterly. 37 (1): 92–100. JSTOR 23006458 – via JSTOR.
  28. ^ Harris, Judith (2003). Signifying pain : constructing and healing the self through writing. State University of New York Press. ISBN 1-4175-3603-9. OCLC 56406335.
  29. ^ Claridge, Gordon; Pryor, Ruth; Watkins, Gwen (1990), "Inside the Bell Jar", Sounds from the Bell Jar, London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 212–243, doi:10.1007/978-1-349-10499-4_10, ISBN 978-1-349-10501-4, retrieved 2022-05-11
  30. ^ Brain, Tracy (2019-08-31), "Sylvia Plath and You", Sylvia Plath in Context, Cambridge University Press, pp. 83–92, doi:10.1017/9781108556200.009, ISBN 9781108556200, S2CID 201517383, retrieved 2022-05-11
  31. ^ "Baring it all - The Boston Globe". BostonGlobe.com.
  32. ^ Ochsner, Andrea (2009). Lad Trouble Masculinity and Identity in the British Male Confessional Novel of the 1990s. transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-1161-2. OCLC 931866061.
  33. ^ a b Dawson, Carrie.(2017). ‘Treaty to Tell the Truth’: The Anti-Confessional Impulse in Canadian Refugee Writing. Canadian Literature 234, 14–182.
  34. ^ Eguchi, Shinsuke (December 27, 2021). Eguchi, Shinsuke (ed.). Asians Loving Asians. doi:10.3726/b17438. ISBN 9781433183058. S2CID 252829912 – via www.peterlang.com.
  35. ^ a b c Juliff, Toby; Early, Jaye (2019-10-02). "The self-design of contemporary confessional art". Journal of Visual Art Practice. 18 (4): 342–358. doi:10.1080/14702029.2019.1676994. ISSN 1470-2029. S2CID 214539195.
  36. ^ Sooke, Alastair. (2013) Tracey Emin - Dirty Sheets and All. The Telegraph. archive.ph/20130421073607/www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturereviews/3557865/Tracey- Emin---dirty-sheets-and-all.html.
  37. ^ Smith, Laura Lake (2017-04-03). "Telling stories: performing authenticity in the confessional art of Tracey Emin". Rethinking History. 21 (2): 296–309. doi:10.1080/13642529.2017.1298336. ISSN 1364-2529. S2CID 151320066.
  38. ^ "THE LONDON LIST — Destruction of the Father". THE LONDON LIST. 3 January 2020. Retrieved 2022-05-18.
  39. ^ "Intention and Interpretation", Introducing Philosophy of Art, Routledge, pp. 85–104, 2014-10-20, doi:10.4324/9781315729909-6, ISBN 978-1-315-72990-9, retrieved 2022-05-18
  40. ^ Hosmer, Katie. (2012). Exposing Thousands of Anonymous Confessions. My Modern Met, www.mymodernmet.com/candy-chang-confessions/.
  41. ^ a b Levinson, Marjorie (March 16, 2007). "What Is New Formalism?". PMLA. 122 (2): 558–569. doi:10.1632/pmla.2007.122.2.558. S2CID 6452197 – via Cambridge University Press.
  42. ^ Dobson, Amy Shields; Robards, Brady; Carah, Nicholas, eds. (2018). Digital Intimate Publics and Social Media. Palgrave Studies in Communication for Social Change. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-97607-5. ISBN 978-3-319-97606-8.
  43. ^ Spiegelman, Willard (2008-12-29), "The Achievement of Robert Lowell (2005)", Imaginative Transcripts, Oxford University Press, pp. 254–284, doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195368130.003.0018, ISBN 978-0-19-536813-0, retrieved 2022-05-18
  44. ^ Bonasera, Carmen (2021-07-09). "Bodies and self-disclosure in American female confessional poetry". European Journal of Life Writing. 10: SV33–SV56. doi:10.21827/ejlw.10.37638. hdl:11585/917652. ISSN 2211-243X. S2CID 237833276.
  45. ^ Bloom, Myra D. Textual Transgressions: Confessional Discourse in Late Twentieth-Century Canadian and Québécois Writing. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2014.
  46. ^ Jamison, Leslie; McGrath, Charles (2015-09-29). "In the Age of Memoir, What's the Legacy of the Confessional Mode?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2022-05-18.

See also

Category