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((Short description|Two panel paintings attributed to Jan van Eyck))
((Italic title|string=Crucifixion and Last Judgement))
((Use dmy dates|date=August 2013))
[[File:Van Eyck - The Crucifixion; The Last Judgment.jpg|thumb|400px|[[Jan van Eyck]], ''Crucifixion and Last Judgement'' diptych, c. 1430–40. Oil on canvas, transferred from wood. Each 56.5&nbsp;cm × 19.7&nbsp;cm (22.25&nbsp;in × 7.75&nbsp;in); [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York]]

The '''''Crucifixion and Last Judgement'' diptych''' (or '''''Diptych with Calvary and Last Judgement''''')<ref name="v362">Vermij et al., 362</ref> consists of two small painted panels attributed to the [[Early Netherlandish painting|Early Netherlandish]] artist [[Jan van Eyck]], with areas finished by unidentified followers or members of his workshop. This [[diptych]] is one of the early [[Northern Renaissance]] [[Panel painting|oil-on-panel]] masterpieces, renowned for its unusually complex and highly detailed [[iconography]], and for the technical skill evident in its completion. It was executed in a miniature format; the panels are just ((convert|56.5|cm|abbr=on)) high by ((convert|19.7|cm|abbr=on)) wide. The diptych was probably commissioned for private devotion.

The left-hand wing depicts the [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Crucifixion]]. It shows Christ's followers grieving in the foreground, soldiers and spectators milling about in the mid-ground and a portrayal of three crucified bodies in the upper-ground. The scene is framed against an expansive and foreboding sky with a view of [[Jerusalem]] in the distance. The right-hand wing portrays scenes associated with the [[Last Judgment|Last Judgement]]: a [[hellscape]] at its base, the resurrected awaiting judgement in the centre-ground, and a representation of [[Christ in Majesty]] flanked by a [[Deesis|Great Deësis]] of saints, [[Apostles in the New Testament|apostles]], clergy, virgins and nobility in the upper section. Portions of the work contain Greek, Latin and Hebrew inscriptions.<ref name="Met">"[http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/110000722 The Crucifixion; The Last Judgment]". [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]. Retrieved 20 February 2012.</ref> The original [[Gilding|gilt]] frames contain Biblical passages in Latin drawn from the [[Books of the Bible|books]] of [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]], [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]] and [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]]. According to a date written in Russian on their reverse, the panels were [[Transfer of panel paintings|transferred to canvas]] supports in 1867.

The earliest surviving mention of the work appears in 1841, when scholars believed the two panels were wings of a lost [[triptych]].<ref name="SM144" /> The [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] acquired the diptych in 1933. At that time, the work was attributed to Jan's brother [[Hubert van Eyck|Hubert]]<ref>Ridderbos et al., 216</ref> because key areas formally resembled pages of the ''[[Turin-Milan Hours]]'', which were then believed to be of Hubert's hand.<ref name="B86" /> On the evidence of technique and the style of dress of the figures, the majority of scholars believe the panels are late works by Jan van Eyck, executed in the early 1430s and finished after his death. Other art historians hold that van Eyck painted the panels around the early 1420s and attribute the weaker passages to a younger van Eyck's relative inexperience.<ref name="B86">Borchert, 86</ref><ref name="B89">Borchert, 89</ref>

== Format and technique ==
Along with [[Robert Campin]] and later [[Rogier van der Weyden]], Van Eyck revolutionised the approach towards naturalism and [[Realism (arts)|realism]] in Northern European painting during the early to mid 15th century.<ref>Ridderbos et al., 378</ref> He was the first to manipulate oils to give the close detailing that infused his figures with the high degree of realism and complexity of emotion seen in this diptych.<ref>Panofsky, 163</ref> He coupled this with a mastery of glaze to create luminous surfaces with a deep perspective—most noticeable in the upper portion of the ''Crucifixion'' panel—which had not been achieved before.<ref name="V70">Viladesau, 70</ref>

In the 1420s and 1430s, when oil and panel painting were still in their infancy, vertical formats were often used for [[Doom paintings|depictions of the Last Judgement]], because the narrow framing particularly suited a hierarchical presentation of heaven, earth and hell. By contrast, depictions of the [[Crucifixion in the arts|Crucifixion]] were usually presented in a horizontal format. To fit such expansive and highly detailed representations onto two equally small and narrow wings, van Eyck was forced to make a number of innovations, redesigning many elements of the ''Crucifixion'' panel to match the vertical and condensed presentation of the Judgement narrative.<ref name="SM144">Smith, 144</ref><ref name="B89" /> The result is a panel with the crosses rising high into the sky, an unusually packed crowd scene in the mid-ground, and the moving spectacle of the mourners in the foreground, all rendered in a continuous slope from bottom to top in the style of medieval [[Tapestry|tapestries]]. Art historian [[Otto Pächt]] says it "is the whole world in one painting, an [[Orbis Pictus]]".<ref name="P192"/>

In the ''Crucifixion'' panel, van Eyck follows the early 14th-century tradition of presenting the biblical episodes using a narrative technique.<ref name="l14">Labuda, 14</ref> According to art historian [[Jeffrey Chipps Smith]], the episodes appear as "simultaneous, not sequential" events.<ref name="SM144" /> Van Eyck condenses key episodes from the gospels into a single composition, each placed so as to draw the viewer's eye upward in a logical sequence.<ref name="l14"/> This device allowed van Eyck to create a greater [[Perspective (graphical)|illusion of depth]] with more complex and unusual spatial arrangements.<ref name="SM144" /> In the ''Crucifixion'' panel, he uses different indicators to show the relative closeness of particular groupings of figures to Jesus. Given the size of the mourners in the foreground relative to the crucified figures, the soldiers and spectators gathered in the mid-ground are far larger than a strict adherence to perspective would allow. In the ''Last Judgement'' the damned are placed in hell in the lower mid-ground while the saints and angels are positioned higher in the upper foreground.<ref name="B89" /> Pächt writes of this panel that the scene is "assimilated into a single spatial cosmos", with the archangel acting as a divider in the pictorial space between heaven and hell.<ref name="P192"/>

Art historians are unsure as to whether the panels were meant to be a diptych or a triptych.<ref name ="P190"/> They may have formed the outer wings of a triptych, with a since-lost panel representing the [[Adoration of the Magi]] at the centre,<ref name="w148" /> or, as the German art historian [[Johann David Passavant|J.D. Passavant]] speculated in 1841, the lost centre panel may have been a [[Nativity of Jesus in art|Nativity]].<ref name="Met" /> It is now thought unlikely that a lost panel could be the postulated original companion to the outer wings; such a coupling would have been very odd to painters of the 1420s and 1430s. It has also been proposed that a central piece was added later, or as Albert Châtelet writes, the central panel may have been stolen.<ref name="w148" /><ref name="CA74">Châtelet, 74</ref> Art historian [[Erwin Panofsky]] believed the ''Crucifixion'' and ''Last Judgement'' panels were intended as a diptych. He argued that it would have been unusual for mere outer wings to have been given the "sumptuous treatment" afforded these two panels.<ref>Panofsky, 454</ref> This approach is reminiscent of the medieval [[reliquary|reliquaries]].<ref name="B86" /> Others have observed that triptychs were usually much larger works intended for public display, and they tended towards gilded and heavily inscribed frames; typically only the central panel would have been as lavishly decorated as these panels. Contemporary diptychs, in contrast, were usually produced for private devotion and were typically ungilded.<ref name="Met" /> There is no documentary evidence for an original central panel, however, and technical examination suggests the two works were intended as wings of a diptych, then an emerging format.<ref>Ridderbos et al., 78</ref> Pächt believes there is not enough evidence to determine whether a third panel existed.<ref name ="P190">Pächt, 190–191</ref>

The diptych is notable for the first known naturalistic depiction of the Moon's features. It had previously been typical to show the Moon as a blank disk or crescent, or with a human face. Here, the waning gibbous Moon is shown as it would appear in the mid-morning western sky in Judea, including major features such as the [[Mare Imbrium]] and the [[Oceanus Procellarum]].<ref name="montgomery">((cite journal |last1=Montgomery |first1=Scott L |title=The First Naturalistic Drawings of the Moon: Jan Van Eyck and the Art of Observation |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |date=1994 |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=317–320 |doi=10.1177/002182869402500406 |s2cid=118238585 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/002182869402500406?journalCode=jhaa |access-date=5 February 2023))</ref>

== The diptych ==

=== ''Crucifixion'' panel ===
The ''Crucifixion'' panel comprises three horizontal planes, each representing different moments from the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]]. The upper third shows the [[crucifixion]] before a view of [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]]; the lower two thirds detail the crowds and Jesus' followers at [[Calvary|Golgotha]] (''Place of the Skull'').<ref name="L9">Labuda, 9</ref> Located outside the city walls amongst rock tombs and gardens, in the first century Golgotha was Jerusalem's place of execution,<ref>Sebag Montefiore, 127–128</ref> and the visible patches of hill highlight the area's "stony, forbidding, and lifeless" nature.<ref name="l10" /> The atmosphere of bleakness is reinforced by the random figures in the upper ground that scramble for a better view.<ref name="L9" /> The gospels tell of Jesus' followers and relatives, as well as his prosecutors and assorted spectators, attending the crucifixion at Golgotha. In van Eyck's panel the former are represented in the foreground, while the latter, including [[High Priest (Judaism)|High Priests]] and [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple Elders]], are shown in the mid-ground.<ref name="l10">Labuda, 10</ref>

[[File:Jan van Eyck Diptych Detail Dying Christ.jpg|thumb|Death of Christ on the cross. Typically, a crucifixion victim's legs were broken to hasten death. According to the Gospel of John, when soldiers came to break Jesus' legs, they found him already dead. A soldier pierced his side with a lance; blood and water poured from the wound.<ref>Sebag Montefiore, 129</ref>]]
The centre foreground shows a group of five mourners, with three other figures set to the right and left. In the center group, [[John the Evangelist]] supports the Virgin [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Mary]], surrounded by three women. Mary's [[Swoon of the Virgin|dramatic swoon]] in grief pushes her forward in the pictorial space, and according to Smith, places her "closest to the viewer's presumed position".<ref name="s146" /> Dressed in an enveloping blue robe that hides most of her face, she collapses and is caught by John, who supports her by her arms. [[Mary Magdalene]] kneels to the right, dressed in a white-trimmed green robe and red sleeves. Raising her arms aloft, she clenches her fingers in a distraught, agonised manner.<ref name="SM144" /><ref>Ainsworth, 16</ref> She is the only figure from this group shown to look directly at Christ and serves as one of the key painterly devices to direct the viewer's gaze upwards towards the crosses.<ref name="l12">Labuda, 12</ref> The fourth and fifth mourners have been identified as prophesying [[sibyls]], and stand to the far left and right of the centre group. The sibyl to the left faces the cross with her back to the viewer while the turbaned mourner on the right faces the group and is either the [[Erythraean Sibyl|Erythraean]] or the [[Cumaean Sibyl|Cumaean]] sibyl,<ref name="l12" /> both of whom are attributed in Christian tradition with warning the occupying Romans of the cult of redemption that would develop around Christ's death and resurrection.<ref name="B89" /> She has an almost indifferent expression that has been interpreted both as satisfaction at seeing her prophesies realised,<ref name="l10" /> and as compassionate contemplation of the other women's grief.<ref name="w146">Weale, 146</ref>

The mid-ground shows a crowd scene above the group of mourners, separated by two soldiers who stand between the two groupings. The mourners from the foreground are reflected in the shield carried on the hip of the lance-bearing Roman soldier who leans on the man to his right wearing a red turban. Smith believes this serves to highlight the mourners' emotional and physical separation from the assorted figures gathered in the mid-ground.<ref name="s146">Smith, 146</ref> Art historian Adam Labuda sees these two figures, positioned full-length between the chief mourners and mid-ground spectators, as a pictorial device that along with the Magdalene's upward gaze draws viewers' eyes upwards through the panel's dramatic sequence.<ref>Labuda, 13</ref>

[[File:Jan van Eyck Diptych Detail Mounted on lookers.jpg|left|thumb|The taunting of the condemned. At the time there were many enemies of the Temple and Jesus was seen by the Jewish hierarchy merely as the charismatic successor to [[John the Baptist]]. Although he became enough of a legitimate threat to be executed, he was ultimately viewed by the elders as just another agitating pseudo-prophet.<ref>Sebag Montefiore, 114–127</ref>]]
Van Eyck's depiction lays particular emphasis on the brutishness and indifference of the crowd witnessing Christ's suffering.<ref name="b192">Burroughs, 192</ref> They comprise a mixture of Roman legionaries, judges and various hangers-on arriving to witness the spectacle.<ref name="l10" /> A number are dressed in rich, brightly coloured clothes, a mixture of oriental and northern European styles,<ref name="V70" /> while several are mounted on horseback. Some openly jeer and taunt the condemned, others gape stupefied at "just another" execution,<ref name="b192" /> while others talk amongst themselves. The exception is the armoured [[centurion]], seated on a white horse at the extreme right edge of the panel, who looks up at Christ, arms spread wide, head thrown back, at "the very moment of his illumination" in recognition of Christ's divinity.<ref name="l10" /> The horsemen closely resemble both the ''[[:File:Ghent Altarpiece E - Knights of Christ.jpg|Soldiers of Christ]]'' and ''[[:File:Ghent Altarpiece E - Just Judges by Vanderveken.jpg|Righteous Judges]]'' from the lower inner panels of van Eyck's c. 1432 ''[[Ghent Altarpiece]]''. Art historian [[Till-Holger Borchert]] observes that these figures are given "greater dynamism by being seen in rear rather than profile view", and that this vantage point draws the observer's eye upwards towards the mid-ground and the crucifixion.<ref name="B89" />

Van Eyck extends the height of the crosses to an unrealistic degree to allow the crucifixion to dominate the upper third of the panel. Christ faces the viewer directly, while the crosses of the two thieves are set at angles to either side.<ref name="V70" /> The thieves are each bound with cords of rope rather than nails.<ref name="w146" /> The body of the thief to the right—the [[Penitent thief|repentant thief]] mentioned in the [[Gospel of Luke]]—is lifeless. The [[Impenitent thief|"bad" thief]] to his left is dying twisted in pain, and according to art historian [[William Henry James Weale|James W.H. Weale]], depicted as "struggling desperately, but in vain".<ref name="w147">Weale, 147</ref> Both men's hands have turned black from a lack of blood flow.<ref name="SM144" /> A placard prepared by Pilate or Roman soldiers placed above Jesus' head reads "[[Jesus, King of the Jews|Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews]]" in Hebrew, Latin and Greek.<ref name="l10" />

[[File:14th-century painters - Page from the Très Belles Heures de Notre Dame de Jean de Berry - WGA16012.jpg|220px|thumb|Leaf from the ''[[Turin-Milan Hours]]'', unknown artist, c. 1440–1450. This illustration is often attributed to Jan van Eyck or a member of his workshop.]]
The panel captures the instant of Christ's death,<ref name="w146" /> traditionally the moment after the breaking of the thieves' legs (although this is not depicted). Christ is naked except for a transparent veil, with some of his pubic hair visible.<ref name="V70" /> His hands and feet are nailed to the timber; the blood from the nail holding his feet to the cross stains its wooden base.<ref name="SM144" /> His arms strain under the weight of his upper body, and in his final agony, his jaw has fallen slack; his mouth is open with his teeth exposed in the grimace of death.<ref name="b192" /> In the mid-ground, at the base of the cross, [[Saint Longinus|Longinus]], on horseback, wearing a fur-trimmed hat and green tunic, guided by an assistant,<ref name="w146" /><ref>Perhaps a reference to his blindness in some later accounts.</ref> stretches to pierce Jesus' side with a [[Holy Lance|lance]],<ref name="l10" /> as deep-red blood pours from the wound. To the right of Longinus, a mostly obscured [[Stephaton]] holds high a sponge soaked with vinegar on the tip of a reed.<ref name="l10" />

The first generation of [[Early Netherlandish painting|Early Netherlandish]] painters did not usually pay much attention to landscape backgrounds. They were often included, showing strong influence from the Italian painters, but typically as minor elements of the composition, seen in the far distance and lacking any real observation of nature.<ref name="B188">Burroughs, 188</ref> This diptych, however, contains one of the most memorable landscape backgrounds in Northern 15th-century art. The panoramic view of Jerusalem extends upwards in the distance to the mountainous peaked range in the background. The sky, which continues to the upper part of the right-hand panel, is rendered in deep blues and lined with [[Cumulus cloud|cumulus]] clouds. These clouds are similar to those in the ''Ghent Altarpiece'' and, as in that work, are included to give depth to and enliven the background skyscape.<ref name="maxj53">Friedländer, 53</ref> The sky seems to have just darkened, in keeping with the idea that the panel captures the moment of Jesus' death.<ref name="l10" /> Faint [[Cirrus cloud|cirrus]] clouds can be seen in the far high-ground, with the presence of the sun is suggested by a shadow falling on the top left area of the panel.<ref name="SM144" />

=== ''Last Judgement'' panel ===
The right-hand wing, as with the ''Crucifixion'' wing, is divided horizontally into three areas. Here they represent, from top to bottom heaven, earth and hell. Heaven contains a traditional [[Deesis|Great Deësis]] with clergy and laity; earth, in the mid-ground, is dominated by the figures of [[Michael (archangel)|Archangel Michael]] and a [[Death (personification)|personification of Death]]; while in the lower ground the damned fall into hell, where they are tortured and eaten by beasts.<ref>Pächt, 192–195</ref> Describing the hell passage, art historian Bryson Burroughs writes that "the diabolical inventions of [[Hieronymus Bosch|Bosch]] and [[Pieter Bruegel the Elder|Brueghel]] are children's boggy lands compared to the horrors of the hell [van Eyck] has imagined".<ref>Burroughs, 193</ref><ref name="mm182">McNamee, 182</ref>

[[File:Jan van Eyck Diptych the Fall3.jpg|left|thumb|320px|[[Michael (archangel)|Saint Michael the Archangel]] bestrides the damned, while behind him the resurrected emerge from their graves before a burning city.<ref name="w148" />]]
Pächt compares the scene to a medieval [[bestiary]], comprising a "whole fauna of zoomorphic fiends". Van Eyck's hell is inhabited by demonic monsters whose only visible features are often "their glittering eyes and the white of their fangs".<ref name="P192">Pächt, 192–194</ref> The sinners fall head first into their torment, at the mercy of devils taking recognisable forms such as rats, snakes and pigs, as well as a bear and a donkey.<ref name="b192" /> Daringly, van Eyck shows kings and members of the clergy among those condemned to hell.<ref name="s146" />

The earth is represented by the narrow area between heaven and hell. The passage shows the resurrection of the dead as the fires of the last day rage. The dead rise from their graves to the left and from the stormy sea to the right.<ref name="b192" /> The Archangel Michael stands on death's shoulders,<ref name="B89" /> the largest figure in the painting, whose body and wings span the entire pictorial space.<ref name="P192"/> Michael wears jewel-studded golden armour and has curly blond hair and multicoloured wings similar to those seen in the [[donor portrait|donor panel]] of van Eyck's 1437 Dresden ''[[Dresden Triptych|Triptych of the Virgin and Child]]''.<ref name="B89" /> Michael appears, according to Smith, "like a giant on the earth, whose crust is revealed to be the wings of the skeletal figure of Death. The damned are excreted though Death's bowels into the dark slime of hell."<ref name="s146" /> The bat-like death figure, with skull extruding up to earth and skeletal arms and legs reaching down into hell, is the protagonist of the narrative according to Pächt, but death is vanquished by the slim and youthful looking [[archangel]] standing between the horrors of hell and the promise of heaven.<ref name="P192"/>

[[File:Jan van Eyck Diptych Crucifixion Right Detail 1.jpg|thumb|300px|A personification of death spreads its skeletal wings over the fallen and damned, a number of whom can be identified by their headdress as members of the clergy.]]
The upper portion of the panel shows the second coming as recorded in [[The Sheep and the Goats|Matthew 25:31]]: "But when the Son of Man comes in his glory, and all the holy angels with him, then he will sit on the throne of his glory."<ref name="u202">Underwood, 202</ref> Christ, who was naked, frail and almost lifeless in the ''Crucifixion'' panel, is now resurrected and [[Christ in Majesty|triumphant in heaven]].<ref name="s146" /> He is dressed in a long red [[cope|mantle]] and is barefoot. His hands and feet are surrounded by circles of yellow light.<ref name="w147" /> The [[Holy Wounds]] are visible on his
palms held open; the puncture mark left by Longinus' spear is visible on his side through the opening in his robe, as are the nail holes on his feet.<ref name="mm181">McNamee, 181</ref>

Christ is seated at the centre of a large array of angels, saints and holy elders.<ref name="mm181"/> According to Pächt, in this scene in heaven that "all is sweetness, gentleness and order".<ref>Pächt, 195</ref> Mary and [[John the Baptist]] kneel in prayer to his immediate right and left. Both have halos and are rendered at a far larger scale than the surrounding figures, over whom they seem to tower. Mary holds her right hand at her breast, while her left is raised as if to ask for mercy for the smaller naked figures sheltered by her cloak, evoking the conventional pose of the [[Virgin of Mercy]]. A choir of virgins gather directly under Christ's feet. They face outwards towards the viewer and sing Christ's praise.<ref name="mm181" />

[[File:Jan van Eyck Diptych Detail.jpg|300px|left|thumb|Detail of the [[Christ in Majesty]]. This area is considered to have been painted more broadly and with less skill than the other sections of the panels, and is thus thought by some to have been painted by members of van Eyck's workshop.<ref>Most likely after his death around 1441.</ref>]]

Headed by [[Saint Peter]], the Apostles are dressed in white robes and sit on two facing benches set below Christ and to the right and left of the choir of virgins. Two angels attend to the groups gathered at each side of the benches.<ref>Weale, 147–148</ref> A further two angels are positioned immediately above Christ. They hold his cross and are dressed in white [[amice]] and [[alb]]s, with the right-hand angel wearing an outer blue [[dalmatic]] vestment. They are flanked on either side by angels playing long wind instruments, probably trumpets.<ref name="w147" /> The two angels on either side of Christ bear the [[Arma Christi|symbols of the crucifixion]] already represented on the left-hand panel. The angel on the left holds a lance and [[crown of thorns]], the angel on the right a [[Holy Sponge|sponge]] and [[Nail (relic)|nails]].<ref name="mm182" /><ref name="mm181" />

Van Eyck was a central influence on [[Petrus Christus]] and the younger painter is thought to have studied the panels while they were still in van Eyck's workshop.<ref name="B89" /><!--any more detail on this? When, how do we know?--><!--yes, wait, but not very flattering to Christus, source him as deritive and simplifing--> He made a much larger and adapted paraphrase of the panel in 1452, as part of a monumental altarpiece, now in Berlin.<ref>Jones, Susan. "[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/eyck/hd_eyck.htm Jan van Eyck (ca. 1380/90–1441)]". In ''Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History''. New York: [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], 2000. Retrieved 7 November 2012.</ref> Although there are significant differences between the two works, the influence of van Eyck on Christus' work is most evident in the vertical, narrow format and in the central figure of Saint Michael, who also divides the scene between heaven and hell.<ref>Upton, 39</ref>
((clear))

=== Iconography ===
Art historian John Ward highlights the rich and complex [[iconography]] and symbolic meaning van Eyck employed to bring attention to what he saw as the co-existence of the spiritual and material worlds. In his paintings, iconographical features are typically subtly woven into the work, as "relatively small, in the background, or in the shadow [details]".<ref name="W11">Ward, 11</ref> The significance of the imagery is often so densely and intricately layered that a work has to be viewed multiple times before even the most obvious meanings become apparent. According to Ward, the iconographical elements are commonly positioned "initially to overlook, and eventually to discover".<ref>Ward, 12</ref> Writing about the ''Last Judgement'' panel, Burroughs notes that "each of its several scenes requires attention for itself alone".<ref name="b192" /> According to Ward, van Eyck forces the viewer to search for the meaning in the iconography, creating a multi-layered surface which rewards the attentive viewer with deeper understanding of both the painting and its symbols.<ref>Ward, 13, 32</ref> Much of van Eyck's iconography intends to convey the idea of "the promised passage from sin and death to salvation and rebirth".<ref>Ward, 26</ref>

=== Inscriptions ===
Both the frames and pictorial areas of the diptych are heavily inscribed with lettering and phrases in Latin, Greek and Hebrew. Van Eyck's early works display a predilection for inscriptions,<ref>Especially in his heavily inscribed, now lost, ''[[Portrait of Isabella of Portugal (van Eyck)|Portrait of Isabella of Portugal]]'' (1428). See Pächt, 110</ref><ref name="ML403ff">Lodewijckx, 403–404</ref> which serve a dual purpose. They are decorative while also functioning in a manner similar to the commentaries often seen on the margins of medieval manuscripts which set in context the significance of the accompanying imagery. Diptychs were usually commissioned for private devotion, and van Eyck would have expected the viewer to contemplate text and imagery in unison.<ref name="s146" />

In this work, the inscriptions are in Roman capitals or Gothic miniature,<ref name="ML403ff"/> and in some places seem to contain misspellings, making interpretation difficult.<ref name="It">"Italia 1:3.500.000. Cartina scolastica". Rome: Cartine da banco, 1976. 502</ref> Its gold-lined frame and Latin inscriptions, with their subtle references to various passages in the two panels, indicate that the donor was wealthy and educated.<ref name="B86" /> The sides of each frame are lined with inscriptions from the [[Book of Isaiah]] ([[s:Bible_(Bishops%27)/Isaiah#Chapter_53|53]]:6–9, 12), [[Book of Revelation|Revelations]] ([[s:Bible_(Wycliffe)/Apocalips#Chapter_20|20]]:13, 21:3–4) or the [[Book of Deuteronomy]] ([[s:Bible_(Wycliffe)/Deuteronomy#Chapter_32|32]]:23–24).<ref name="Met" /> In the right-hand panel, the wings of the figure of death contain Latin inscriptions on either side; on the left are the words <small>''CHAOS MAGNVM''</small> ("great chaos"), with <small>''UMBRA MORTIS''</small> ("shadow of death") inscribed to the right.<ref name="w148">Weale, 148</ref> A warning from Matthew 25:41 is written on both sides of death's head and wings, and extends from earth down into the hell section. It reads, ''Ite vos maledicti in ignem eternam'' ("Go, ye cursed, into everlasting fire"). In this way, van Eyck dramatically aligns the biblical extract in diagonal dual beams of light seemingly hurled from the heavens.<ref name="w148" /> Also in the section are letters reading <small>''ME OBVLIVI''.</small><ref name="ML403ff"/>

In the mid-ground, the Archangel Michael's armour is heavily inscribed with esoteric and often difficult to source phrases.<ref name="w148" /> Letters on his breast plate read <small>''VINAE(X)''</small><ref name="ML403ff"/> while his jewel-encrusted oval [[buckler]] displays the cross and is decorated with Greek script reading <small>''ADORAVI TETGRAMMATHON AGLA''</small>.<ref name="w148" /> The meaning of this phrase has not been conclusively identified; some art historians believe it contains misspellings and has been misread.<ref name="It" /> Friedländer transcribed the first word as <small>''ADORAVI''</small> while the final word <small>''AGLA''</small> is thought be taken from the first four letters of the Hebrew words for "Thou Art Mighty", and thus may signify God; the word also appears in a floor tile in the ''Ghent Altarpiece''.<ref name="Met" /><ref name="maxj53" /> In the upper portion, gilded inscriptions running vertically across the edges of Christ's mantle read <small>''VENITE BENEDICTI PATRIS MEI''</small> ("Come, ye blessed of my father").<ref name="w147" />

== Attribution and dating ==
Over the years the panels have been attributed to both Jan and [[Hubert van Eyck]] as well as Petrus Christus. In 1841, Passavant attributed the diptych jointly to Hubert and Jan van Eyck;<ref name="Met" /> by 1853, he had revised his opinion and gave attribution exclusively to Jan.<ref>Passavant, 123</ref> [[Gustav Friedrich Waagen|Gustav Waagen]], the first director of the [[Gemäldegalerie, Berlin]], attributed them to Petrus Christus in the mid 19th-century, based on the left-hand panel's similarity in composition to a 1452 ''Last Judgement'' signed by Christus now in Berlin. This view was rejected in 1887, and they once more became associated with Jan. The panels came into the possession of the [[Hermitage Museum|Hermitage Gallery]] in 1917, credited to Jan.<ref name="w148" />

Bryson Burroughs, writing for the Metropolitan at the time of their acquisition in 1933, attributed the works to Hubert. Burroughs saw in the panels the hand of an expressive artist, "all nerves and sensibilities",<ref name="B188"/> overcome with sympathy for the plight of the central figures in the panels, but who was nonetheless weak in drawing line. This profile, he believed, was incompatible with the aloof and impassive master craftsman Jan is known to have been.<ref name="B188" /> Yet Burroughs acknowledged there was "no certain documented proof for the attribution [to Hubert]". He admitted his evidence was "limited, inevitably incomplete", and thus "circumstantial and presumptive".<ref name="B184">Burroughs, 184</ref> More recent scholarship tends to agree Jan painted the panels based on the evidence that they are stylistically closer to Jan than Hubert, who died in 1426; and that Jan, who travelled across the [[Alps]] to Italy that year, painted the mountain range.<ref name="Met" />

[[File:Petrus Christus - The Last Judgement - WGA04844.jpg|210px|thumb|[[Petrus Christus]]'s ''Last Judgement'' (1452) is a much larger, though more sparse and more easily "read", near-copy of van Eyck's panel. Panofsky commented that "what [Christus] thought difficult to understand, he explained; and what he chose to retain, he rendered in simple, vernacular language".<ref>Ridderbos et al., 78–79</ref> [[Gemäldegalerie, Berlin]]]]

The paintings have often been compared to the seven pages of the ''[[Turin-Milan Hours]]'' [[illuminated manuscript]] attributed to the unidentified artist "Hand G", generally thought to have been Jan van Eyck.<ref>"The identification of Hand G with Jan van Eyck is considered very likely nowadays." See Ridderbos et al., 244</ref> The closeness is seen to lie both in the miniaturist technique and the particular painterly style. The similarity of a Turin drawing of the crucified Christ to the figure in the New York diptych has led some art historians to conclude they were, at least, painted near the same time, during the 1420s and early 1430s. Most believe both the drawing and diptych panel at least originated from a prototype designed by Jan van Eyck.<ref name="B86" /> Panofsky attributed the New York panels to "Hand G".<ref name="A89">Ainsworth, 89</ref> When the ''Turin-Milan Hours'' miniatures were discovered they were at first believed to have been painted before the [[John, Duke of Berry|Duke of Berry]]'s death in 1416, an idea that was quickly rejected with the date extended to sometime in the early 1430s.<ref name="Pächt 190">Pächt, 190</ref>

Pächt writes of the diptych that it reflects the "personal style and unique scenic imagination" of "Hand G" (whom he believed to be either Hubert or Jan).<ref name="Pächt 190"/> Until [[Hans Belting]] and Dagmar Eichberger's 1983 ''Jan van Eyck als Erzähler'', academics tended to focus exclusively on the diptych's dating and attribution, with little attention paid to its source influences and iconography.<ref name="L9" /> Borchert estimates a completion of c. 1440, while Paul Durrieu suggests a dating as early as 1413.<ref name="Met" /> In 1983, Belting and Eichberger suggested a date of c. 1430 based on specific characteristics of the work: the "birds-eye view" perspective and horizon, the densely packed figures and, especially, a pictorial narrative that moves logically across the areas of the image in the ''Crucifixion'' panel.<ref name="l12" /> Belting and Eichberger believe this style was employed during the early panel works, but was largely abandoned by the 1430s.<ref name="v362" />

The 1430s dating is supported by the style of the [[underdrawing]], which is consistent with known signed works by van Eyck from that time. In addition, the figures are dressed in clothes fashionable in the 1420s with the exception of one of the possible donors, tentatively identified as [[Margaret of Bavaria]], who is depicted as the sybil standing in the right foreground of the crucifixion panel and wears clothes in style in the early 1430s.<ref name="Met" />

The upper portions of the ''Last Judgement'' panel are generally considered as the work of a weaker painter with a less individual style. It is thought that van Eyck left the panels unfinished with completed underdrawings, and the area was finished by workshop members or by followers after he died.<ref name="B86" /> [[Maryan Ainsworth]] of the Metropolitan takes a different view. She highlights the close relationship known to have existed between contemporary workshops in the Low Countries and France, and speculates that a French miniaturist or [[Illuminated manuscript|illuminator]], perhaps from the workshop of the [[Bedford Master]], travelled to Bruges to assist van Eyck on the right-hand panel.<ref name="A89" /><!--note, as stated this really makes light of her claim, need to develop-->

== Provenance ==
Nothing is known of the work's provenance before the 1840s. Given the panels' diminutive size—which is typical of early diptychs<ref name="b192" />—it seems probable that the work was commissioned for private rather than public devotion. The notion of a well-educated patron, with knowledge of and appreciation for the art of earlier centuries, is reinforced by both the classical language inscriptions and the abundant detail found across all areas of the panels.<ref name="B86"/>

Writing in 1841 in the journal ''Kunstblatt'',<ref>In [[Johann Friedrich Cotta]]'s supplement to [[Morgenblatt für gebildete Stände|Morgenblatt]].</ref> Passavant gave an account of how the panels were bought at auction from either a Spanish monastery or convent. The Russian diplomat [[Dmitry Tatishchev]] acquired the panels, possibly from a Spanish convent or monastery near Madrid or [[Burgos]], while living in Spain between 1814 and 1821.<ref name="Met" /> Tatishchev left his pictures to [[Nicholas I of Russia|Tsar Nicholas I]] in 1845, and they came into the possession of the Hermitage Gallery in [[Saint Petersburg]] in 1917.<ref name="A70">Ainsworth, 70</ref>

The panels were included in the [[Soviet sale of Hermitage paintings]], which included another important van Eyck work, the 1434–1436 ''[[Annunciation (van Eyck, Washington)|Annunciation]]''. They were purchased by Charles Henschel of New York art dealer [[M. Knoedler & Company]]<ref>Goldstein, 172</ref> for $185,000, significantly less than the asking price of $600,000 when the works were offered in 1931.<ref>The decline in price reflected the general pressure on Russian foreign trade at the time; Soviet art prices were suffering, not helped by the impression that the Russians needed cash. See Williams, 227</ref> The panels were shipped from Saint Petersburg to the Matthiesen Gallery in Berlin before M. Knoedler & Company sold them on to the Metropolitan in New York that year.<ref name="B184" />
((clear))

== Gallery ==

=== Left panel ===
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="3">
File:Jan van Eyck Diptych Crucifixion left Detail.jpg|Women swoon in mourning in the foreground.
File:Crucifixion and Last Judgement diptych Detail2.jpg|Landscape of [[Jerusalem]] seen beyond the cross
File:Jan van Eyck Diptych Crucifixion left Detail3.jpg|Oriental looking onlookers gather at the base of the cross.
</gallery>

=== Right panel ===
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="3">
File:Crucifixion and Last Judgement diptych Detail1.jpg|To the right of the [[Michael (archangel)|Archangel Michael]], the resurrected are called from their graves on the seabed to face judgement.
File:Jan van Eyck Diptych Left Panel Detail.jpg|The flesh of a large-breasted<!--not "fat"?--> woman is torn apart by the teeth of a demon, while a lizard-shaped devil in front of her feeds on a man whom he pushes into his mouth head first.
File:Jan van Eyck Diptych Crucifixion Right Detail 2.jpg|Attendants to the resurrected Christ, upper right panel. Because of its relative stylistic simplicity, this section is thought to have been designed by van Eyck, but completed by a member of his workshop.
</gallery>

== References ==
=== Notes ===
((reflist|30em))

=== Sources ===
((refbegin|30em))
* [[Maryan Ainsworth|Ainsworth, Maryan]]. ''From Van Eyck to Bruegel: Early Netherlandish painting in the Metropolitan Museum of Art''. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1999. ((ISBN|0-300-08609-1))
* [[Till-Holger Borchert|Borchert, Till-Holger]]. ''Van Eyck''. London: Taschen, 2008. ((ISBN|3-8228-5687-8))
* Burroughs, Bryson. "A Diptych by Hubert van Eyck". ''The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin'', Volume 28, No. 11, Part 1, November 1933. 184–193
* Châtelet, Albert. ''Van Eyck''. Woodbury, NY: Barron's, 1979. 74. ((ISBN|0-8120-2161-4))
* [[Max Jakob Friedländer|Friedländer, Max Jakob]]. ''Die Van Eyck, Petrus Christus''. Leiden: Sijthoff, 1934
<!-- * Hand, John Oliver; Metzger, Catherine; Spron, Ron. ''Prayers and Portraits: Unfolding the Netherlandish Diptych''. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-300-12155-5 -->
<!-- * Harbison, Craig. ''Jan Van Eyck: The Play of Realism''. London: Reaktion Books, 1991. ISBN 978-0-948462-79-5
* Harbison, Craig. "Realism and Symbolism in Early Flemish Painting". ''The Art Bulletin'', Volume 66, No. 4, 1984. 588–602 -->
* Goldstein, Malcolm. ''Landscape with Figures: A History of Art Dealing in the United States''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. ((ISBN|0-19-513673-X))
* Labuda, Adam S. "Jan van Eyck, Realist and Narrator: On the Structure and Artistic Sources of the New York 'Crucifixion'". ''Artibus et Historiae'', Volume 14, No. 27, 1993. 9–30. ((JSTOR|1483443))
* Lodewijckx, Marc. ''Archaeological and Historical Aspects of West-European Societies: Album Amicorum André Van Doorselaer''. Acta Archaeologica Lovaniensia Monographiae 8. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1996. ((ISBN|90-6186-722-3))
* McNamee, Maurice. ''Vested Angels: Eucharistic Allusions in Early Netherlandish paintings''. Leuven: Peeters Publishers, 1998. ((ISBN|90-429-0007-5))
* [[Erwin Panofsky|Panofsky, Erwin]]. ''Early Netherlandish painting: Its Origins and Character''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1964
* Pächt, Otto. ''Van Eyck and the Founders of Early Netherlandish Painting''. 1999. London: Harvey Miller Publishers. ((ISBN|1-872501-28-1))
* Passavant, Johann David. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FRQtAAAAYAAJ Die Christliche Kunst in Spanien]''. Leipzig, 1853
* Ridderbos, Bernhard; van Buren, Anne; van Veen, Henk. ''Early Netherlandish paintings: Rediscovery, Reception and Research''. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2004. ((ISBN|90-5356-614-7))
* [[Simon Sebag Montefiore|Sebag Montefiore, Simon]]. ''Jerusalem: The Biography''. London: Phoenix, 2012. ((ISBN|1-78022-025-1))
* [[Jeffrey Chipps Smith|Smith, Jeffrey Chipps]]. ''The Northern Renaissance''. London: Phaidon Press, 2004. ((ISBN|0-7148-3867-5))
* Underwood, Paul. ''The Kariye Djami, Volume 1''. London: Pantheon, 1966
* Upton, Joel Morgan. ''Petrus Christus: His Place in Fifteenth-Century Flemish painting''. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1989. ((ISBN|0-271-00672-2))
* Vermij, R. H.; Cardon, Bert (ed); Van Der Stock, Jan (ed). ''Als Ich Can''. Leuven: Peeters Publishers, 2002. ((ISBN|90-429-1233-2))
* Viladesau, Richard. ''The Triumph of the Cross: The Passion of Christ in Theology and the Arts from the Renaissance to the Counter-Reformation''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. ((ISBN|0-19-533566-X))
* Ward, John. "Disguised Symbolism as Enactive Symbolism in Van Eyck's Paintings". ''Artibus et Historiae'', Volume 15, No. 29, 1994. 9–53. ((JSTOR|1483484))
* [[William Henry James Weale|Weale, W.H. James]]. ''[https://archive.org/stream/cu31924015994878#page/n9/mode/2up Hubert and John Van Eyck, their life and work]''. London: John Lane, 1908
* Williams, Robert. ''Russia Imagined: Art, Culture and National Identity, 1840–1995''. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 1997. ((ISBN|0-8204-4484-7))
((refend))

== Further reading ==
* Nickel, Helmut. "The Sun, the Moon, and an Eclipse: Observations on The Crucifixion with the Virgin and Saint John, by Hendrick Ter Brugghen". ''Metropolitan Museum of Art Journal'', Volume 42, 2007. 121–124. ((JSTOR|20320677))
*((cite book |editor=O'Neill, J| title= The Renaissance in the North | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1987 | url= http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/113542))

== External links ==
((Commons category|Diptych - Crucifixion & Last Judgment - Metropolitan))
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[[Category:1430s paintings]]
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[[Category:Paintings depicting the Crucifixion of Jesus|van Eyck]]
[[Category:Diptychs]]
[[Category:Paintings by Jan van Eyck]]
[[Category:Paintings depicting Michael (archangel)]]
[[Category:Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
[[Category:Paintings of the Virgin Mary]]
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[[Category:Death in art]]
[[Category:Demons in art]]
[[Category:Moon in art]]
[[Category:The Last Judgement in art]]

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