The culture of Aruba, encompassing its language, music, and cuisine, is diverse and has been influenced by both regional and foreign cultures. One significant foreign influence originates from the Iberian Peninsula, which had a significant impact on the island for approximately 137 years, starting c. 1500. These influences were characaterized by a strong religious presence, missionary activities, and economic exploitation.^[1]

Since 1636, during the Eighty Years' War (1621–1648), the Dutch played a crucial role in shaping Aruba's identity, driven by their exploratory and mercantile spirit, contributing to the island's modern character.^[1]

Ornaments on City Hall

Door of former Hotel Colombia [nl]

Dormer on yellow house in Weststraat 15 [nl]

Art deco influences with the establishment of the oil industry (Lago Oil and Transport Company).

Former Sheraton Hotel (1960–1979) beside Aruba's largest hotel, formerly Concord (1977), now RIU Hotel (2007).^[2]

The Aruban tourism industry dates to 1930s when the first commercial airline landed on Aruba and a guest house was established in Oranjestad. Starting in the early 1960s with the rise of a new wave in the tourism industry and the opening of the first luxury resort, Aruba Caribbean Hotel, a national aspiration arose to become "The little Miami of the Caribbean". However, this focus on developing a small island tourism economy (SITES or SIDS) led to rapid and uncontrolled expansion of the tourism sector. As consequence, it brought about a range of socio-ecological challenges and disrupted the sociocultural fabric of the island, known internationally as "One Happy Island".^[3][4]

Customs and traditions

The three Dutch Leeward Islands, Curaçao, Aruba and Bonaire, located just off the coast of Venezuela, are among the driest islands in the Caribbean. An example of these economical exploitation in Aruba was deforestation during the Spanish and Dutch colonization, exacerbating significant soil erosion.^[5] Due to their advantageous proximity to Venezuela, these islands received supplies of fruit and vegetables.^[6] Presently, Aruba imports tropical fruits from United States of America, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, and the Netherlands.^[7]

Pier in Oranjestad with barges that arrived loaded with fruit from Venezuela (1930)

Fruit and vegetable market at Paardenbaai harbor in Aruba (n.d.)

Cuisine history

Antillean cuisine shares similarities with dishes from other Caribbean islands and Venezuela, but it also possesses its own distinct character. Over the course of history, these islands changed ownership multiple times and were inhabited by diverse races, each contributing to the development of the culture, language, music, and food.^[8]

Arawak diet

The original inhabitants, known as the Arawak speaking Caquetios, sustained themselves through simple farming, fishing, and hunting. They cultivated corn and brown beans together, because beans helped maintain the soil's fertility. They also grew sweet potatoes, groundnuts, cocoa, and cassava. Their sources of protein included turkey, duck, iguanas, and seafood from the nearby waters. Fruits were readily available.^[8]

Upon the arrival of the Spaniards in the Caribbean islands, they recognized the value of crops like corn, cocoa, groundnuts, and peppers. They were introduced to new fruits like papaya, avocado, coconut, guava, and pineapple. Herbs like basil and oregano, used by the indigenous people for flavoring, also caught their attention. The Spaniards learned about annatto (a saffron substitute), allspice, and other seasonings. This blend of indigenous and Spanish influences laid the foundation for the diverse Antillean cuisine.^[8]

In Aruba maishi rabo (Sorghum bicolor; Spc.introduced) is used to make pan bati (typical Aruban flat native bread). While funchi is made from corn (Zea mais)

Casuela (flat cast iron griddle)or Buren(flat clay griddle)are used to cook arepa cachapa and pan bati. An equivalent variety is the comal.

Fried piska cora (red snapper), shrimp, and pan bati.

Spanish influence

The Arawak people also adopted some of the Spaniards' food practices, including the use of pork fat. Before the arrival of the Spaniards, the indigenous people cooked their food by boiling, steaming, roasting (barbacoa, now known as barbecue), or dry-frying on a clay plate (the comal). Sometimes, they even ate their food raw. They learned to appreciate the pig as a source of food and how to use its fat for frying. To enhance the flavor, they used coui, a sauce made from cassava juice and various types of pepper. They also began using annatto for its red-orange color and were introduced to salt. Other new foods included mango, lemon, and olive, brought by the Spaniards from Asia. Initially, they used honey as a sweetener, but the Spaniards introduced sugar.^[9]

African influence

The African slaves brought to the Caribbean by the Spaniards to work on sugarcane plantations made significant contributions to Caribbean cuisine. One important contribution was the banana, which has become a crucial part of our cuisine.^[9]

The indigenous people made flat cakes from cassava or corn, while the Africans introduced funchi [nl] or funge, similar to Italian polenta. Later, the corn flour mash adopted from the indigenous people was also called funchi. Various types of beans and okra (guiambo) were also brought to the Caribbean with the slaves.^[9]

Palo di funchi is a wooden kitchen tool used to prepare funchi.

Lélé is used for the preparation of tamarind juice

The black slaves in the Caribbean introduced their cooking methods, including using banana leaves to cook their food. They also brought tools like the lélé wooden stirring stick and iron pots for making funchi. Black slaves were given the most economical food by their masters. This typically did not include fresh meat or fish. Instead, they ate salted mackerel or cod, which was affordable and could withstand the tropical heat. Dried fish became a primary source of protein for the slaves. They paired the fish with dishes like funchi or starchy tubers such as yam and sweet potatoes.^[9]

After the abolition of slavery, Asian immigrants arrived on other Caribbean islands, bringing with them leafy vegetables like spinach, lettuce, and curds.^[9]

In the early seventeenth century, the West India Company acquired the islands that would later form the colony of Curaçao.^[9]

Dutch and Jewish influence

The Dutch introduced cheese, bacon, and various types of beans, such as kapucijner [nl] and peas. Dutch workers who came to work at the oil refineries (Lago Oil and Transport Company and Arend Petroleum Company) brought changes to the local food culture. Before their arrival, most families had two hot meals a day, with the main meal in the afternoon and a lighter one in the evening. With the influence of the oil industry, the evening meal for many people shifted to a simpler bread-based meal. People started to learn about different sandwich fillings and how to use cheese as a sandwich filling. The consumption of potatoes and canned vegetables also became more common.^[10]

In the seventeenth century, Sephardic Jews, who had previously migrated from Spain and Portugal and later settled in Brazil, were granted permission by the Netherlands to establish themselves on the islands. They had to leave Brazil during that period. The arrival of these Sephardic Jews, some of whom were affluent, greatly enriched Curaçao's cuisine with the finest Spanish and Portuguese culinary influences, giving it a distinct and more refined character compared to other Caribbean islands and South American regions.^[10]

One noteworthy aspect was their mastery of combining sweet and sour ingredients, including capers, dried plums, olives, and raisins, in a single dish, which created a unique flavor that required an acquired taste to appreciate. They also introduced the cooking method au bain marie to the existing culinary practices.^[10]

Chinese and Indonesian influence

Chinese sailors, originally part of their own oil fleet, decided to settle in Curaçao and opened restaurants, a tradition often seen in Chinese communities worldwide. In the 1970s, the first Chinese restaurants, like Dragon Phoenix in 1971 and Kowloon in 1975, were established in Aruba.^[11]

During Second World War, a significant number of Indonesians, mainly Royal Netherlands Navy sailors, stayed in Curaçao. When they left after the war, they left behind dishes like nasi goreng, bami goreng, and satay, which gradually blended into the local cuisine.^[6] In 1955, the floating Bali restaurant opened its doors in Aruba.^[12]

United States of America influence

From the Americans stationed here during the Second World War, the local population learned to enjoy Coca-Cola and developed a taste for various bottled soft drinks.^[6]

Specialities

As previously mentioned, many elements commonly associated with the Antilles can also be found in Venezuela and other Caribbean islands, albeit with some variations. Local cuisine often features the use of regional papaya-based hot sauces, locally known as pica di papaya, in both accompaniments and cooking.^[13]

Ayaca

The ayaca is a dough of white corn flour, also known as masa harina, sugar, salt, aniseeds, finely grated cheese, butter and milk spread thinly is placed on a banana leaf. A stuffing consisting of stewed chicken and pork, capers, raisins, plums, olives, piccalilli, ham, peeled almonds, celery, parsley, gherkins and chili pepper is placed on top. The banana leaf is closed and made into a small, neat package, which is wrapped in a second leaf and then tied with packing string and boiled in boiling water. The prepared ayacas are then allowed to cool. Shortly before serving, the ayaca is warmed up and eaten stripped of the banana leaves. Ayacas are made and eaten during the Christmas and New Year holidays.^[14]

Keshi yená

The keshi yená (stuffed cheese) is traditionally a hollowed out red Edam cheese is soaked and then stripped of the red wax layer and filled with a meat or fish filling, including capers, raisins, plums and olives. In a well-fitting form it is then prepared in a bain marie or put in the oven. The heat softens the cheese rind. At the end of the baking time, the keshi yená is turned out onto a plate, after having cooled down a bit, cut like a cake and served. For convenience, instead of the hollowed-out, round Edam cheese, which gives the dish its typical taste and soft pink color, a tin baking sheet is lined with slices of Gouda cheese. Similarly to the ayaca, the keshi yená is often served as an hors d'oeuvre.^[15]

Sancocho

The sancocho is a typical example of a soup as a main course. In addition to fresh and salted meat, this dish contains vegetables, plantain, tubers, corn on the cob; and both sweet and regular potatoes.^[15]

Sopi mondongo

Mondongo is a stewed tripe dish made from the stomachs and hooves of cattle or goat. This stew, like so many other local specialties, is quite expensive. A thinner variant of this is also made, known as sòpi di mondongo (tripe soup).

After being thoroughly cleaned and washed with plenty of lamunchi (lime), the stomachs are parboiled and cut into small pieces. Capers, raisins, plums, olives and most of the sankocho ingredients are added later and the whole thing is simmered over a low heat. Finally, cognac or sherry is added. Foreign visitors sometimes call the stewed mondongo the "Antillean pepperpot".^[16]

Sopi yambo

The yambo dish is a thick hearty okra soup. Yambo can be as simple or rich as one would like. A rich yambo contains cured meat and pig tail, fish, cheese, shrimp and kalko (conch meat) paired with funchi. This dish is not popular with many, especially foreigners, due to the slipperiness of the dish.^[16]

Festivals and celebrations

Dera Gai

Dera Gai is a traditional celebration in Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire, particularly associated with Dia di San Juan (St. John the Baptist Day) on June 24. In the past, it involved lighting bonfires on the eve of St. John's day, signaling the upcoming holiday. Bonfires were fueled by the remains of the previous year's harvest, a practice symbolizing preparation for the new growing season.^[17] Men, fueled by singing and music, used to leap over the flames, but this custom faded due to concerns about fire safety.^[18] Nowadays, fires are lit all over the island on St. John the Baptist Day itself.^[17]

A persistent belief advises against fishing or swimming on St. John's Day due to strong northeast trade winds. In Aruba, the celebration takes the form of Dera Gai, an Aruban harvest festival and cultural event featuring traditional song and dance. Songs were played by violin, guitar, wiri, and tambú.^[19] The festival includes a unique ritual, historically involving the symbolic burial of a rooster.^[18]

In the traditional Dera Gai ritual, a hole is dug, and a rooster is placed inside with only its head protruding often covered with a green or dried Calabash gourd. The rooster symbolizes the betrayal of Jesus Christ by Judas.^[20] Participants, blindfolded, attempt to hit rooster encouraged by music and singing.^[18] The festivals include symbolic attire with females wearing yellow outfits representing the kibrahacha flower (Tabebuia billbergii), and males donning black trousers, white shirts, and a yellow tie.^[21][19]

This holidays is widely celebrated, with both pagan and Christian symbols that reflect the influences of the Arawak natives and the Spanish missionaries, respectively.^[17] This festival is no longer as widely practiced, nowadays, the rooster is omitted, and only the calabash and a plastic rooster serves as the target for the reenactment.^[18]

Carnival

The Allied victory of World War II was commemorated by a large parade in San Nicolas, consisting largely of Caribbean-English immigrants who came to Aruba to work at the Lago Oil Refinery.^[22] The first steel and brass bands debuted a few years later and small parades sprouted here and there. Groups within the Aruban elite have taken up this celebration and expended it further. Aruba Tivoli Club, a private social club, started in 1944 with small celebrations.^[23]

In 1955, different clubs and districts came together for the inaugural public Aruba Carnival, featuring the first official Carnival queen. The traditional Grand Parades were introduced in 1957. On November 11, 1966, at 11:11 am, the Stichting Arubaanse Carnaval (SAC), the organization responsible for Carnival, was established. The Carnival season officially commences at this exact moment each year. Since 1981, Tivoli has been producing the Lighting Parade, a nighttime parade.^[22] Carnival begins with a small Fakkeloptocht (torchlight parade) that symbolizes the start of the Carnival season. This parade takes place on the first Saturday after New Year.^[23][24]

Every year, Carnival (the big parade) is celebrated on a different date. The timing of Carnival is determined by Easter Day. Easter Sunday, the first Sunday after the first full moon after the beginning of Spring, sets the date for the first day of Carnival day. To find the first Carnival Day, you count back seven weeks or 47 days before Easter. Carnival officially kicks off on a Sunday. Easter can fall as early as March 22 or as late as April 25. As a result, Carnival is celebrated between February 1 and March 7. Following Carnival, there's Ash Wednesday, marking the start of Lent, a 40-day period during which people abstain from eating meat or animal products. These 40 days provide an opportunity for the body to detoxify. After following. Following the period of fasting, Easter arrives.^[23]

New year

The New Year celebration in Aruba also includes a cultural tradition known as Dande. The name Dande, derived fromt the Papiamento word dandara, meaning "to revel, to carouse, or to have a good time", reflects the festive spirit of the occasion. The celebration originated after King William III of the Netherlands declared slaves to be free.

Typically, a group of five or six people, though more can join, engages in these rituals. Accompanied by a singer, they go door-to-door, offering New Year's wishes through repetitive songs. The chorus includes the phrase ai nobe, meaning "new year", sung after each phrase. The celebratory journey usually leads them to the homes friends and family, where the host collects money in his a hat to give to the group. In some regions, specific dande groups may perform on the second day of the year.^[25]

Society

Nationality

Central Bureau of Statistics indicate that in 2022, the population of Aruba consists of individuals from 138 different countries and represents 99 different nationalities. Nearly two-thirds (64.4%) of the population of Aruba are born in Aruba or the former Netherlands Antilles, 9.7% are born in Colombia, 5.4% in Venezuela, 4.6% in the Dominican Republic, and 4.5% in the Netherlands.^[26]

Superstition and pagan beliefs

The origins of beliefs and superstitions in Aruba can be traced back to pre-Columbian times when indigenous peoples inhabited the island. However, after 1820, when the indigenous population disappeared, their cultural heritage and beliefs were lost. Subsequently, with the arrival of African slaves during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, some African beliefs and superstitions became integrated into the culture, known as Brujería or Brua.^[28][29] An example of a superstition that aligns with the pagan belief of Brua is ojada or hojada, which is equivalent to the belief in the evil eye. Children, especially newborns, are the most vulnerable and should be protected against the ojada.^[30] Bracelets made from Abrus precatorius, locally known as Bonchi hojada ("Bean of hojada"), are worn as amulets for protection against bad spirits.^[27]

Arts

Music

Origin of musical styles

The current Aruban population is the product of cultural and racial blending, evident in the diverse influences shaping Aruban music. Little is known about the music of the initial indigenous inhabitants. Aruban music is often seen as a creation of the later island residents. This unique musical style, rooted in the blend of rhythms from various cultures, embodies the distinct characteristics. It features its own rhythm and vitality—sometimes melancholic, usually cheerful, occasionally turbulent yet relaxing, predominantly romantic, and expressive. Notably, Aruban music carries discernible traces of the following influences:^[31]

Here, distinctions are made in Aruban musical styles:^[31]
I. African origin (melody, form, and rhythm)

II. European origin (melody, form and rhythm)

III. Caribbean and South American origin (melody, form, and rhythm)

IV. Hybrid forms

V. Aruban music crafted for particular instruments

Musical styles

The Aruban waltz, exemplified by the national anthem Aruba Dushi Tera, originates from Europe. It's characterized by the unmistakable three-fourths beat of the Viennese waltz. Through rhythm variations within the bar (syncope), the Aruban waltz gains its distinctive flexibility and character, setting it apart from Viennese or Curaçaoan waltzes.^[32]

Other European-inspired music styles include the Danza, which also has roots in Europe and is known in places like Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic. The mazurka, an original Polish dance with a three-fourths rhythm accented on the second beat. Lastly, the Bolero, originally Spanish, with a clear four-four measure, probably arrived in Aruba through Cuban labor migration.^[32]

Waltz and Bolero, alongside the Tumba and Merengue, play a vitol roles in the vibrant music legacy shaped by the pioneers of Aruban culture, such as composer and pianist Padu Lampe, renowned as Padu del Caribe, and Victor Camacho. Noteworthy musical groups like Placentero Ritmo y Cuerda and Vicente Kelly have also made significant contributions to this vibrant musical tradition.^[32] An Aruban singer and composer, Bernadina Growell [pap], is widely acknowledged as the mother of Aruban culture.^[33][34]

Tumba holds a place in the ABC islands similar to what merengue does in the Dominican Republic, calypso in Trinidad, and son in Cuba. Originally a two-part dance set to a 2/4 time signature (now often in 6/8), Tumba, at the dawn of the 20th century, served as a vehicle for songs of satire and ridicule. What was once a means for the community to convey gossip through song has evolved to nurture professional songwriters.^[35]

In 1971, Tumba was officially designated as the national style for the annual Carnival Road March and Tumba festival. Much like Trinidad, Curaçao, and Aruba, these celebrations include competitions to crown the E Rey di Tumba (King of Tumba). The festivities begin with lively parades and jump-up events. The finals are broadcast throughout the entire island group, with live radio connections to the Netherlands, allowing the vast Antillean community to cheer for their favorite performers.^[35]

Tradition and modernity in Aruban music

In Aruban music, a fusion of tradition and modernity has emerged, by musicians like Ivan Jansen, Delbert Bemabela, Ivan Quandus, and Cuban saxophonist Eduardo Proveyer. This blend seamlessly incorporates traditional Aruban rhythms such as danza, waltz, merengue, tumba, and steelpan music into a modern cross-over genre, giving rise to Aruban Crioyo Jazz. Described by Jansen as "a fusion of Caribbean rhythms and adventurous jazz improvisations", this musical direction has gained popularity, exemplified by events like the like the Caribbean Sea Jazz Festival (which concluded in 2019).^[36][32]

Notable bands like Claudius Philips' [pap] Oreo, BMW, and Basic One play a crucial role in preserving the Afro-Caribbean musical tradition introduced by Caribbean migrants in the first half of the twentieth century. The younger generation of musicians, including professionals, semi-professionals, and amateurs, infuse rock, reggae, rock, and hip-hop into the evolving Aruban musical landscape. Aruban musical landscape. The heightened interest in South American rhythms like Vallenato, spurred by increased migration in the 1990s, has further diversified the local musical scene. As Aruban music extends its global reach, it embraces diverse styles, from classical and funk to Latin jazz, rock, reggae, and hip-hop.^[32]

Cinema

The CineAruba foundation, established in 2010, strives to supports the sustainable growth of the local film industry by providing multidisciplinary workshops, producing original feature-length movies and short films, and promoting cultural awareness.^[37] CineAruba's endeavors have garnered 5 film awards and facilitated 28 international screenings. Abo So (2013) stands out as Aruba's inaugural feature-length movie and musical, featuring music from Padu del Caribe.^[38] The film explores identity and examines how different ethnicities in Aruba interact and handle prejudice.^[39] Original content from CineAruba also includes three narrative short films, including 10 Ave Maria (2011), Awa Brak (2012), and Alto Vista (2015). Aruba's first five-episode fictional television series, Ciudad Oraño, premiered in 2018 and was broadcast on Telearuba 13.^[38] Events such as Playa Film Festival, Shortcutz Aruba, and Rooftop Film Club, and 48 Hour Film Project Aruba promote cultural diversity of the Caribbean, provide a platform for emerging talent, offer an open-air cinematic experience, and host an annual 48-hour film competition, respectively.^[40]

Visual arts

The inaugural Art Fair in September 2016 marked the beginning of Aruba's street art scene,^[41] with San Nicolas emerging as the focal point. The Main Street of San Nicolas features vibrant art murals created by both local talents and renowned international artists.^[42]

Mural of Sarah-Quita Offringa by Portuguese artist MR Dheo (2022)

Three-dimensional illusionary effect by Stathis Tsavalias (Insane51)

Boy Ecury mural created by Esmeralda Kelly (2022)

Sports

Football

Football (or Soccer) is the dominant sport on the island. Many football pitches (fields) are available for the youth to practice this sport. The Aruba Football Federation is currently the governing organization. The Aruba national football team has also participated in many International events.

Baseball

In the 1930s, baseball on Aruba was initially limited to United States expatriates residing in the colony and working for Lago. Jim Bluejacket played a pivotal role in boosting the game's popularity within the colony. Beyon the colony, the introduction of baseball to Aruba was facilitated by Venezuelan immigrants and sailors on Venezuelan fishing boats, with notable figures like Felix Garrido, the grandfather of Evelyn Wever-Croes, contributing to its spread. The Amateur Baseball Bond of Aruba (ABBA) was established in 1950, and Aruba became a member of the International Amateur Baseball Association by 1952. The Little League has notably produced five players who reached the major leagues: Calvin Maduro, Gene Kingsale, Radhames Dykhoff, Sidney Ponson, and Xander Bogaerts.^[43]

Sources

• Alofs, Luc; Merkies, Leontine (2001). Ken ta Arubiano?: sociale integratie en natievorming op Aruba, 1924–2001 [Who is Aruban?: Social Integration and Nation-Building in Aruba, 1924-2001] (in Dutch). Oranjestad: VAD/De Wit Stores. ISBN 9789990481105.
• Brenneker, Paul (1969–1975). Sambumbu: Volkskunde van Curacao, Aruba en Bonaire (in Dutch and Papiamento). Vol. 1–10. Curaçao: Paul Brenneker.
• Naar, Hubert (Juby) (2004). Origen di celebracion di dia di San Juan [Origin of St. John the Baptist Day Celebrations] (in Papiamento). Oranjestad: Instituto di Cultura Aruba.
• Römer, René A. (1978). Cultureel Mozaïek van de Nederlandse Antillen: Constanten en Varianten [Cultural Mosaic of the Netherlands Antilles: Constants and Variants] (in Dutch). Zutphen: Walburg Pers. ISBN 9789060110836.
• Razak, Victoria M. (2007). "Carnival in Aruba: "A Feast of Yourself"". Trinidad Carnival: The Cultural Politics of a Transnational Festival. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. pp. 136–160.