Dermanyssus gallinae (also known as the red mite) is a haematophagousectoparasite of poultry. It has been implicated as a vector of several major pathogenic diseases.[1][2] Despite its common names, it has a wide range of hosts including several species of wild birds and mammals, including humans, where the condition it causes is called gamasoidosis.[3][4] In both size and appearance, it resembles the northern fowl mite, Ornithonyssus sylviarum.[5]
Description
Dermanyssus gallinae is an obligate blood feeder that will normally attack its host at night,[6] but will occasionally feed during the day.[7] Adults are 0.75–1 mm (0.030–0.039 in) long, with long legs and usually a grayish-white body, which becomes reddish-brown when engorged.[8] After feeding, they hide in cracks and crevices away from light sources, where they mate and lay eggs.[6] Mites progress through five life stages: egg, larva, protonymph, deutonymph and adult.[9] Under favourable conditions this life cycle can be completed within seven days, so populations can grow rapidly, causing anaemia in badly affected flocks of poultry.[10] Young birds are most susceptible. The mites can also affect the health of the birds indirectly, as they may serve as vectors for diseases such as Salmonellosis, avian spirochaetosis and Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae.[11][2]D. gallinae can survive for up to 10 months in an empty hen house. Temperatures greater than 45 °C (113 °F) and less than −20 °C (−4 °F), have been found to be lethal.[12]
Infestation in hens
Signs and symptoms
The mites normally feed around the breast and legs of hens, causing pain, irritation, and a decrease in egg production. Pustules, scabs, hyperpigmentation and feather loss may develop.
If they are present in large numbers, D. gallinae can cause anemia in hens[10] which presents as pallor of the comb and wattle.
Diagnosis
A presumptive diagnosis can be made in flocks of laying hens, usually based on a history of decreasing egg production, anaemia and mortalities in young or ill birds. Blood spots on eggs indicate infestation within the cloaca of an affected hen. Definitive diagnosis is only achieved following identification of eggs, feces or the mites themselves.
Prevention
There are several methods for preventing infestation in hen houses including:
Heating the henhouse to temperatures above 55 °C (131 °F).
Regular washing down of the housing system.
Treatment of the walls and floors with silica dust or carbolineum prior to introduction of the new hens.[13]
Treatment
Ectoparasiticides can be used to treat affected poultry, these chemical controls, if used, should be used in rotation to avoid the buildup of resistance.[14]Organophosphates,[15]carbamates,[15] and pyrethroids[15][3] are widely used. The first case of pyrethroid resistance was reported by Beugnet et al 1997[3] and new cases continue to be reported as of 2020[update] by Katsavou et al 2020.[15] The insecticide spinosad is effective against mites resistant to the veteran acaricides and can even be used on premises in the presence of the laying hens.[16] A novel product, Exzolt was introduced in the EU in 2017,[17] it contains fluralaner, an isoxazoline, and is highly effective against D. gallinae, included those resistant to old acaricides. It is approved for oral administration mixed with the drinking water and has a systemic mode of action, i.e. it acts through the blood of the treated birds.[17] The macrocyclic lactones eprinomectin, moxidectin or ivermectin have been shown to impact mite reproduction and blood-meal digestion in one study,[18] though other studies found ivermectin to be ineffective except at doses "unfavourably close to those causing toxicity".[19]
Exposing mites to carbon dioxide using dry ice and direct-spraying has been proposed as a novel treatment.[21]
Vaccines are currently under active development for the treatment of poultry, which seek to "stimulate a protective response" in the birds and increase D. gallinae mortality.[22]
Some plant essential oil products can act as repellents.[3][15] Birkett et al 2011 and George et al 2009 identify particular plants whose EOs successfully repel D. gallinae.[3][15]
Dermanyssus gallinae piercing skin with its long chelicerae to reach dermal capillaries (not to scale).
In humans, D. gallinae infestations are known as gamasoidosis or dermanyssosis.[23] The mites are capable of digesting[24] and reproducing entirely on human blood, so infestations can be persistent.[4] Due to the nocturnal feeding habits of D. gallinae, infested people may experience itching and notice bites when they wake up in the morning.[25] The severity of symptoms vary, with dermatitis,[26]pruritus and papular urticaria being common.[23]
Prevention of infestation in human habitation consists of eliminating potential vectors such as destroying pigeon and sparrow nests[27] and treating infested backyard poultry.[28]
Elimination of an infestation in a human habitation is best achieved through a combination of eliminating potential vectors (nesting pigeons, backyard poultry, etc.); reducing potential hiding places (rugs, clutter); judicious use of pesticides; consistent use of dehumidifiers to maintain a low humidity environment; maintaining a low temperature in the environment; frequent thorough cleaning; minimizing the amount of time spent in the home; and maintaining excellent hygiene.[29][30]
Infestation in other animals
Dermanyssus gallinae will also feed on mammals, including cats, dogs, rodents, rabbits, horses.[4] Infestation by D. gallinae is rare in cats and dogs; usually the extremities and the back are bitten, causing itching.[31]
Gallery
Immature form Nymph I of Dermanyssus gallinae by A.C. Oudemans
Immature form Nymph II of Dermanyssus gallinae by A.C. Oudemans
^ abcdeSparagano, O.A.E.; George, D.R.; Harrington, D.W.J.; Giangaspero, A. (2014). "Significance and Control of the Poultry Red Mite, Dermanyssus gallinae". Annual Review of Entomology. 59: 447–466. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-011613-162101. PMID24397522.
^Weisbroth, Steven H. (1960). "The Differentiation of Dermanyssus gallinae from Ornithonyssus sylviarum". Avian Diseases. 4 (2): 133–137. doi:10.2307/1587499. JSTOR1587499.
^Sparagano, O.A.E.; Giangaspero, A. (2011). "Parasitism in egg production systems: The role of the red mite (Dermanyssus gallinae)". Improving the Safety and Quality of Eggs and Egg Products. pp. 394–414. doi:10.1533/9780857093912.3.394. ISBN9781845697549.
^Bruneau, A.; Dernburg, A.; Chauve, C.; Zenner, L. (June 2001). "First in vitro cycle of the chicken mite, Dermanyssus gallinae (DeGeer 1778), utilizing an artificial feeding device". Parasitology. 123 (6): 583–589. doi:10.1017/S0031182001008836. ISSN1469-8161. PMID11814045. S2CID22213397.
^ abKilpinen, O.; Roepstorff, A.; Permin, A.; Nørgaard-Nielsen, G.; Lawson, L. G.; Simonsen, H. B. (2005-02-01). "Influence of Dermanyssus gallinae and Ascaridia galli infections on behaviour and health of laying hens (Gallus gallus domesticus)". British Poultry Science. 46 (1): 26–34. doi:10.1080/00071660400023839. ISSN0007-1668. PMID15835249. S2CID12646759.
'^Chirico, J.; Eriksson, H.; Fossum, O.; Jansson, D. (2003). "The poultry red mite, Dermanyssus gallinae, a potential vector of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae causing erysipelas in hens". Medical and Veterinary Entomology. 17 (2): 232–234. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2915.2003.00428.x. PMID12823843. S2CID24997699.
^Nordenfors, Helena; Höglund, Johan; Uggla, Arvid (1999). "Effects of Temperature and Humidity on Oviposition, Molting, and Longevity of Dermanyssus gallinae (Acari: Dermanyssidae)". Journal of Medical Entomology. 36 (1): 68–72. doi:10.1093/jmedent/36.1.68. PMID10071495.
^Chauve, Claude (1998). "The poultry red mite Dermanyssus gallinae (De Geer, 1778): Current situation and future prospects for control". Veterinary Parasitology. 79 (3): 239–245. doi:10.1016/S0304-4017(98)00167-8. PMID9823064.
^George, D.R.; Shiel, R.S.; Appleby, W.G.C.; Knox, A.; Guy, J.H. (2010). "In vitro and in vivo acaricidal activity and residual toxicity of spinosad to the poultry red mite, Dermanyssus gallinae". Veterinary Parasitology. 173 (3–4): 307–316. doi:10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.06.035. PMID20655147.
^Zeman, P. (1987). "Systemic efficacy of ivermectin against Dermanyssus gallinae (De Geer, 1778) in fowls". Veterinary Parasitology. 23 (1–2): 141–146. doi:10.1016/0304-4017(87)90032-X. PMID3564341.
^Harrington, David; Canales, Mario; de la Fuente, José; De Luna, Carlos; Robinson, Karen; Guy, Jonathan; Sparagano, Olivier (2009). "Immunisation with recombinant proteins subolesin and Bm86 for the control of Dermanyssus gallinae in poultry". Vaccine. 27 (30): 4056–4063. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.04.014. PMID19501789.
^ abJames WD, Berger T, Elston D (2015). "Parasitic infestations, stings and bites: Gamasoidosis". Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: Clinical Dermatology (12 ed.). Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 446. ISBN9780323319690.
^Williams, R. W. (1958). "An infestation of a human habitation by Dermanyssus gallinae (Degeer, 1778) (Acarina: Dermanyssidae) in New York City resulting in sanguisugent attacks upon the occupants". The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 7 (6): 627–629. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.1958.7.627. ISSN0002-9637. PMID13595207.
^Kos L, Galbraith S (2011). "Infections and infestations". In Schachner LA, Hansen RC (eds.). Pediatric dermatology (4th ed.). St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby/Elsevier. pp. 1576–1578. ISBN9780723436652.
^Rosen, S.; Yeruham, I.; Braverman, Y. (2002). "Dermatitis in humans associated with the mites Pyemotes tritici, Dermanyssus gallinae, Ornithonyssus bacoti and Androlaelaps casalis in Israel". Medical and Veterinary Entomology. 16 (4): 442–444. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2915.2002.00386.x. PMID12510897. S2CID21453929.
^Bellanger, A. P.; Bories, C.; Foulet, F.; Bretagne, S.; Botterel, F. (2008). "Nosocomial Dermatitis Caused by Dermanyssus gallinae". Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology. 29 (3): 282–283. doi:10.1086/528815. PMID18205530. S2CID205985989.
^Whitehead, M. L.; Roberts, V. (2014). "Backyard poultry: Legislation, zoonoses and disease prevention". Journal of Small Animal Practice. 55 (10): 487–496. doi:10.1111/jsap.12254. PMID25109514.
^Paterson S (2009). "Dermanyssus gallinae". Manual of skin diseases of the dog and cat (2nd ed.). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 118–119. ISBN9781444309324.
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