The Double V campaign, initiated by the Pittsburgh Courier from February 1942, was a drive to promote the fight for democracy in overseas campaigns and at the home front in the United States for African Americans during World War II. The idea of the Double V originated from a letter written by James G. Thompson on January 31, 1942. In the letter, Thompson refers to the "V for victory" sign prominently displayed by countries fighting "for victory over aggression, slavery, and tyranny," but proposes the adoption of a second 'V' for African Americans fighting for freedom overseas and at home, "the first V for victory over our enemies from without, the second V for victory over our enemies from within."^[1] Pitched as "Democracy – Double Victory, At Home – Abroad," the campaign highlighted the risks Black soldiers and civilians took while participating in America's struggle against the Axis powers while being denied their rights as full American citizens back home.^[2]

Aims of the Double V Campaign

An important aim for members of the NAACP was to get involved in the war effort, which Black men and women were largely excluded from.^[3] Alongside this, another one of the most important aims for the campaign was to inspire African Americans to fight in the Second World War. By serving in the military and showing their dedication to their country, African Americans hoped to be a valuable part of the war effort as a way to demand liberty and citizenship.^[4] In an article titled Black America Wars On Double Front For High Stakes by Edgar T. Rouzeau in the Pittsburgh Courier on 7 February 1942, Rouzeau asserted that there were high stakes for Black Americans in the war, writing

"Where white America must fight on foreign soil for the salvation of the United States and for the preservation of "democracy," Black Americans must fight and die on these same battlefields, not merely for the salvation of America, not merely to secure the same degree of democracy for Black Americans that white Americans have long enjoyed, but to establish precedent for a world-wide principle of free association among men of all races, creeds and colors. That's the black man's stake."^[5]

The Campaign also hoped to lobby for the U.S. government to declare war on racial prejudice domestically alongside fighting the war, however this was shunted to the side in favor of winning the war.^[6] Many African Americans involved with the NAACP understood that the U.S.A's fight against Hitler's actions against Jews was an inherent contradiction, since the government would do nothing about the oppression of Black Americans.^[3]

Response to African Americans Involvement in World War II

Response in the United States

African American soldiers fighting abroad in the Second World War were subject to segregation within the U.S. armed forces, despite fighting on land that did not hold the same racist ideology as that which they experienced at home and during their service.^[7] Despite this discrimination still prevalent within the US, some concessions were made domestically in regard to the war effort. In particular through President Roosevelt's issuing of Executive Order 8802 that banned employment discrimination in defence industries and civilian agencies of the federal government on grounds of race, creed or colour. From 1942 to 1943, due to the government's concern over racism in Europe while ignoring the problem of racism in America, riots broke out in Los Angeles, Beaumont, Detroit and Harlem. This reflected the frustration African Americans felt over Black soldiers enlisting or being drafted only to return and be treated as less than citizens.^[3] It was not until July 28, 1948, when President Harry S. Truman put forth Executive Order 9981, that the U.S. armed forces were racially integrated.^[8]

Response in Hawaii

After the Japanese attack on the American naval base in Pearl Harbor, America sent in the 369th Division to defend the territory of Hawaii from air attacks. Response from Hawaiians toward the African American soldiers varied greatly. The territory was a volatile combination of racial tension and extreme state power, as it had not yet joined the American Union, which wouldn't happen until 1959. Hawaii did not have the ingrained segregation found within America at this time. Although stereotyping of minorities did occur, Hawaii is considered today to have been more progressive on the issue of race than mainland America.^[9] There was no established place for African Americans as Jim Crow segregation laws within America had kept White and Black people in separate social spheres.^[10] Racially driven stereotypes regarding African Americans did exist on the island and included rumors spread by non-African American soldiers that Black soldiers had monkey tails.^[9] For example, many White soldiers refused to recognize higher-ranking Black officers. The discrimination African Americans experienced within the military in Hawaii fueled their fight to see the "Double V" campaign succeed. However, their experience of life in a community that didn't have such established racial ideas demonstrated what a double victory could achieve.^[10]

The white response in the United States

Domestically, official channels began to take notice of the growing disaffection amongst African Americans in relation to their involvement in World War 2 as well as the 'Double V Campaign', with an Office of War Information report being published in 1942 detailing the condition in America. Likewise, the FBI conducted their own investigation through its RACON (racial conditions in America) report, discovering that despite strong numbers of support in the war effort by African Americans, the discriminatory policies present at home as well as in the armed forces undermined US attempts to create a unified nation as well as highlighted the contradictions in American involvement in fighting against the oppression Nazi Germany, while displaying significant amounts of racism and xenophobia at home.^[11]

Role of the Press

African Americans had to create their own newspapers to spread information of importance and interest to their community, as White newspapers wouldn't include Black issues. These newspapers and their influence increased during the war, as they had to relay information about the war to their readers. The Black press emerged as a vibrant space for rhetorical expression and Black social, political, and cultural activity, which was its primary function. It reflected the frustrations of the Black community, which was often more radical than the press itself.^[12] The campaign first appeared in the African American newspaper Pittsburgh Courier on February 7, 1942.^[13] The Pittsburgh Courier in particular helped to shed more light on the achievements of African Americans serving in the army and navy, as well as challenge the segregationist policies that existed in these branches. The newspaper claimed that public response to the campaign was overwhelming, receiving many letters and telegrams that expressed support, while the Double V symbol displayed in the Pittsburgh Courier appeared in several other black newspapers until 1943.^[14] The story published on Doris Miller in 1942 charted his heroism during the Attack on Pearl Harbor, during which Miller, working as a cook aboard the USS West Virginia (BB-48) carried wounded soldiers to safety during the attack, as well as manned a .50 calibre Browning Anti-aircraft machine gun and fired on the Japanese planes until he ran out of ammunition. The black press thus used Miller's story to bring attention to the role of African Americans within the armed forces, and the Pittsburgh Courier's constant coverage eventually led to the navy as well as the FDR administration to recognise his contribution, awarding him the Navy Cross, setting a precedent for greater visibility of the role of African Americans in helping with the war effort.^[15]

Circulation and Content

The Courier was the most highly circulated Black newspaper during the war, with a readership of around 350,000. Other Black newspapers followed suit and adopted the campaign, including the Chicago Defender and the Amsterdam Star-News. Since the Black press had been criticized for insufficient patriotism, they created the Double V Campaign as a means to counter this idea and promote patriotism among African Americans despite the hypocrisy of the US government. However, newspapers such as the Chicago Defender and Pittsburgh Courier also detailed discrimination and racism which African American troops were facing abroad during the war.^[16]

Results of the Campaign

Double V's Advancements

The Double V Campaign had limited success. While it promoted patriotism and support for the war effort among African Americans, especially as the Allies won the war, it fostered a narrow appreciation for the complexity of African American wartime situations, and it did not address or impact the underlying structure of America's systems of institutional racism.^[17] The campaign was also not a unifying force as many White, Southern newspapers and journalists criticized the slogan and characterized it as a dangerous revolution. The government tried to get the Black press to cease its agitation in an effort for greater rights.^[18] Among African Americans, the Double V campaign had a 91% approval rating and was supported by various institutions and organizations, such as North Carolina A&T State University and United Automobile Workers. Support for the campaign was bolstered by wartime events such as the Port Chicago disaster and the Agana race riot, which underscored the disparities Black soldiers faced. The campaign also played a role at home in encouraging defense industries to hire African American employees who left the South in large numbers for the urban North and West Coast during the Second Great Migration to help the nation's war effort.^[19] The 'Double V Campaign' did however aid in reshaping attitudes within the armed forces regarding race, helping to legitimise the role African Americans played in the US war effort in the eyes of society at large. This came in the form of a report ("Attitudes of the Negro Soldier") issued by the Research Branch of the Special Service Division of the US armed forces, which made the suggestions that important military duties should be assigned to black soldiers while news of military achievements performed by black soldiers should receive greater coverage and recognition, all done in an effort to convey to US citizens the crucial role played by African Americans in winning the war ^[20]

Results of the Press

The press had a vital role in creating and spreading the idea of Double V in an effort to get more readers and Black men to enroll in the Army and support the war effort, as it was not a "white man's war." If Black people did not support the war effort and help America win, it could be problematic to win equality back home.^[21] It was difficult to emphasize the importance of African American involvement in the war at a time when discrimination was apparent both in conscription and the wartime labor force. In addition, it was also a response to Franklin D. Roosevelt, who had encouraged five editors of the top Black newspapers in the United States to reduce the discontent and apathy of their readers toward the war.^[22]

The End of the Double V Campaign

The campaign died down by 1943, in part due to threats of possible legal action, pressure from the Roosevelt administration and government agencies, as well as the war intensifying, leading to more emphasis in the press being placed on fighting the war overseas than at home.^[23] The Pittsburgh Courier only mentioned the successes of the campaign from that point on. However, it is still considered to be a turning point within African American history which led to unity among the Black population in regard to achieving this double victory in the long run.^[18] The slogan and wartime protests marked a key development within Black protest movements and aided in laying the groundwork for the future Civil Rights Movement.^[12] Demands for change did not stop, as the NAACP still was calling for the end of segregation in the army and navy in 1944. Nonetheless, the campaign had not fully achieved its goal, as discrimination was still legal in America after the war, despite the efforts of African American soldiers.^[24] In this regard, the White House also failed to respond to progressive change within the African American population. However, the Double V Campaign helped lay the foundations for the later achievements and concessions made by the Civil rights movement as many of those Democrats elected to Congress between 1948 and 1958 were influenced by the increased wartime racial progressivism and so were instrumental in challenging the Conservative coalition's dominance in Congress, thus providing the necessary conditions in which the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 were able to be passed.^[25]