The city stood north of the Nafud desert and at one end of Wadi Sirhan, at a major intersection of ancient trade routes part what is known as the incense route, with one branch linking the various sources of valuable goods in India and southern Arabia with Babylon, and another linking the Persian Gulf through Wadi Sirhan with southern Syria.[2] It has a historical boundary wall[dubious – discuss] and stands within an oasis.[3][better source needed]
The ancient city of Duma was described as "the stronghold of the Arabians" on a Neo-Assyrian clay prism dating from the 7th century BC.[4]
Some scholars identify this site as territory of Dumah, one of the twelve sons of Ishmael mentioned in the Book of Genesis.[5]
Etymology
The name Dumat al-Jandal means literally "Dumah of the Stone"; the name Al-Jawf means "depression", referring to Wadi Sirhan. The city's ancient Akkadian name was Adummatu.[citation needed]
History
Ancient Near East
The city has a history dating back to the 10th century BC and is mentioned in Akkadian inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Empire dating to 845 BCE, in which it is referred to as Adummatu and is described as the capital of an Arab kingdom sometimes named as Qedar (Qidri). The names of five powerful Arab queens that ruled this city are known, among them Zabibe, Šamši, Tabūʿa, and Teʾelḫunu. The latter is also given the title of high priestess of Atarsamain, a deity of fertility, love and war associated with Ishtar. Dūmah was the site of an important temple dedicated to Ishtar.[6]
This town is perhaps intended in a passage from Isaiah:
The "Dumah" Pronouncement.
A call comes to me from Seir:
"Watchman, what of the night?
Watchman, what of the night?"
The watchman replied,
"Morning came, and so did night.
If you would inquire, inquire.
Come back again."
Sacrifices of animals were common and Porphyry's De Abstenentia (3rd century AD) reports that in Dūmah, a boy was sacrificed annually and was buried underneath an altar. Some scholars have extrapolated this practice to the rest of the Nabataeans.[7]
Excavations made by Khaleel Ibrahim al-Muaikel in 1986 added to observations made in 1976 that a homogenous layer of Roman-Nabataean pottery sherds indicating a prosperous community during the time of the Nabataeans, to whose realm this part of the region probably belonged.[8]
Roman period
In AD 106, Dumatha was incorporated into the Roman Empire by Emperor Trajan defeated the Nabataeans.[clarification needed]
Dumatha remained integral to the Limes Arabicus for over four centuries, serving as the easternmost settlement along the limes. In AD 269, the place was mentioned by Zenobia, the Queen of Palmyra, as city with an immune fortress. After her forces had captured the city, the Marid Castle withstood the attack in her revolt against the Romans.[clarification needed] Later in the fifth century, the city became the capital of the kingdom of Kinda.[citation needed]
Byzantine and Sasanian clients
The ancient oasis town was among a number of cities that the Pre-Islamic Arabs would travel to as part of the sequence of market fairs held annually. In contrast to the other market cities, Duma was characterized by its disputed political sovereignty between Arab clients of the Byzantines and Sasanians that made claims to it. The markets of Duma specialized in slavery and prostitution with the Banu Kalb, the dominant tribal group in the area, being known to practice slavery more than other tribes.[9]
In 2017, a Paleo-Arabic Christian graffito discovered near al-Jawf and dating to AD 548/9, known as the Dumat al-Jandal inscription, was published. The inscription reads "May be remembered. May God remember Ḥgʿ{b/n}w son of Salama/Sa-lāma/Salima {in} the m[onth] (gap) year 443 [AD 548/549]."[10]
The city had been the object of no fewer than three raids due to its strategic location. It lay about fifteen days march north from Medina and about half that distance from Damascus.[11]
Muhammad ordered the Expedition of Dumat al-Jandal in July 626.[12] Muhammad had received intelligence that some tribes there were involved in highway robbery and preparing to attack Medina itself.[13] No casualties were reported as the Ghatafan tribe fled.[13]
Umar Mosque (wrongly attributed to Caliph Umar) is situated in Dumat al-Jandal. The mosque was built in 634-644. However, the actual construction appears to have been a much earlier period as a church. Some scholars believe that the mosque was named after the Banu Umar, a tribe that settled in Dumat al-Jandal.[citation needed]
Omar Mosque and al-Dar'i Quarter in Dumat al-Jandal
The north (qibla) wall[clarification needed] of the mosque faces the Marid Fort across a street. On its other three sides, it is surrounded by dense urban fabric. Like any other old town mosque, the stone construction comprises a courtyard preceding the main prayer hall to the south and another space, also used for prayer, to the north. The minaret is at the southwest corner of the prayer hall bridging over a street. The mosque is entered through a door situated in the qibla wall, near the minaret.[clarification needed] The prayer hall is formed by three rows of stone pillars, running parallel to the qibla wall. The pillars are all by wooden lintels,[clarification needed] which in turn support layers of stone that are roofed by mud-plastered acacia and palm trunks.[citation needed]
The mihrab is a narrow, corbelled niche in the center of the qibla wall, and is defined by a similar niche with three built-in stone steps to its right. The mihrab, the minbar, and the lower part of the qibla wall are plastered with white wash. Viewed from the outside, one sees that the mihrab and minbar protrude slightly out of the qibla wall. Also visible is an exposed stone staircase constructed along the qibla wall from the street side that reaches the roof. The minaret shaft has a rectangular shape that tapers upward to end in a pyramidal form. The four internal floors of the shaft were accessed by a now-collapsed spiral staircase entered from within the mosque. On each side of the minaret, and on each floor, a rectangular window with a stone lintel provides lighting for its interior.[citation needed]
Al-Dar'i Quarter
In the ancient town's Al-Dar'i Quarter
Al Dar'i Quarter is located in the neighborhood of Omar bin al-Khatab Mosque and Marid fortress, which represent the old quarter of Dumat al-Jandal. Al-Dar'i Quarter is considered to be one of remaining antiquities of Dumat al-Jandal's ancient city, which has escaped the demolition shovels befalling the historical market of Dumat al-Jandal 25 years ago.[when?] Dr. Khalil Al Meaigil has stated that, the facilities of the quarter, which dates back to the middle Islamic age, have bern established on ancient layers dating back to the mid-first millennium BC.[citation needed]
The neighborhood is characterized by the stone buildings and stone lanes between the gardens and by the water, which made life possible for thr residents who lived near by the springs. In Al-Dar'i Quarter there are many of houses which archaeologists hope will enjoy the necessary care and restoration.[citation needed]
Archaeology
On 9 June 2020, the discovery of a 35-meter long triangular megalithic monument dated back to VI millennium BC which presumably dedicated to ritual practices was published in the journal Antiquity. Archaeological researchers from France, Saudi Arabia and Italy, headed by Olivia Munoz believe that these findings illuminate a pastoralist nomadic lifestyle and a ritual used in prehistoric Arabia.[20][21]
Climate
In Dumat Al-Jandal, there is a desert climate. Most rain falls in the winter. The Köppen-Geiger climate classification is BWh. The average annual temperature in Dumat Al-Jandal is 22.2 °C (72.0 °F). About 59 mm (2.32 in) of precipitation falls annually.
^Wenning, Robert (2013). "Towards "Early Petra": an overview of the early history of the Nabataeans in its context". In Mouton, Michel; Schmid, Stephan Gerhard (eds.). Men on the Rocks: The Formation of Nabataean Petra. Bulletin of Nabataean Studies: Supplement Volume 1. Berlin: Logos. pp. 7-22 [ 9 ]. ISBN978-3832533137. Retrieved 30 March 2024. Procedings of a conference held in Berlin in 2011.
^"The Esarhaddon Prism". The British Museum. Retrieved 27 June 2021. Column 4: "Adumutu (is) the strong city of the Arabians, which Sennacherib, king of Assyria, the father, my begetter, had conquered"
^Healey, John F. (2001). "Images and Rituals". The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World (136) (print ed.). BRILL. pp. 169–175. ISBN978-90-04-10754-0. Retrieved 30 March 2024.
^Healey (2001). "Ritual Actions: Offerings", pp. 161–163 [ 162 ]
^Amir 'Abd al-Rahman bin Ahmad al-Sudairi, The Desert Frontier of Arabia, Al-Jawf through the Ages, 1995, ISBN0-905743-75-X, p49
Saudi Arabia
