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((short description|Glands of the endocrine system that secrete hormones to blood))

((More citations needed|date=January 2010))
((Infobox anatomy
| Name        = Endocrine glands
| Latin       = glandulae endocrine
| Image       = Illu endocrine system.png
| Caption     = The major endocrine glands: 
'''1''' [[Pineal gland]]
'''2''' [[Pituitary gland]]
'''3''' [[Thyroid|Thyroid gland]]
'''4''' [[Thymus]]
'''5''' [[Adrenal gland]]
'''6''' [[Pancreas]]
'''7''' [[Ovary]]
'''8''' [[Testicle]]

| Image2     =
| Caption2   =
| Precursor  =
| System     = [[Endocrine system]]
| Artery     =
| Vein       =
| Nerve      =
| Lymph      =
))
'''Endocrine glands''' are ductless [[gland]]s of the [[endocrine system]] that secrete their products, [[hormone]]s, directly into the [[blood]]. The major glands of the endocrine system include the [[pineal gland]], [[pituitary gland]], [[pancreas]], [[Ovary|ovaries]], [[testicle]]s, [[thyroid|thyroid gland]], [[parathyroid gland]], [[hypothalamus]] and [[adrenal gland]]s. The hypothalamus and pituitary glands are [[neuroendocrine]] [[Organ (anatomy)|organ]]s.<ref>((Cite journal|last=Clarke|first=I. J.|date=January 2015|title=Hypothalamus as an endocrine organ|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25589270/|journal=Comprehensive Physiology|volume=5|issue=1|pages=217–253|doi=10.1002/cphy.c140019|issn=2040-4603|pmid=25589270|isbn=9780470650714 ))</ref>

[[File: Endocrine central nervous en.svg|thumb|350px| Endocrine glands in the human head and neck and their hormones]]

==Pituitary gland==
((Main|Pituitary gland))
The [[pituitary gland]] hangs from the base of the [[brain]] by the [[pituitary stalk]], and is enclosed by bone. It consists of a hormone-producing glandular portion of the [[anterior pituitary]] and a neural portion of the [[posterior pituitary]], which is an extension of the [[hypothalamus]]. The hypothalamus regulates the hormonal output of the anterior pituitary and creates two hormones that it exports to the posterior pituitary for storage and later release.

Four of the six anterior pituitary hormones are [[tropic hormone]]s that regulate the function of other endocrine organs. Most anterior pituitary hormones exhibit a diurnal rhythm of release, which is subject to modification by stimuli influencing the hypothalamus.

Somatotropic hormone or [[growth hormone]] (GH) is an [[anabolism|anabolic hormone]] that stimulates the growth of all body tissues especially skeletal muscle and bone. It may act directly, or indirectly via [[insulin-like growth factor]]s (IGFs). GH mobilizes fats, stimulates protein synthesis, and inhibits glucose uptake and metabolism. Secretion is regulated by [[growth hormone-releasing hormone]] (GHRH) and [[Somatostatin|growth hormone-inhibiting hormone]] (GHIH), or somatostatin. Hypersecretion causes [[gigantism]] in children and [[acromegaly]] in adults; [[hyposecretion]] in children causes [[Growth hormone deficiency|pituitary dwarfism]].

[[Thyroid-stimulating hormone]] promotes normal development and activity of the [[thyroid gland]]. [[Thyrotropin-releasing hormone]] stimulates its release; negative feedback of thyroid hormone inhibits it.

[[Adrenocorticotropic hormone]] stimulates the [[adrenal cortex]] to release [[corticosteroids]]. Adrenocorticotropic hormone release is triggered by [[corticotropin]]-releasing hormone and inhibited by rising [[glucocorticoid]] levels.

The [[gonadotropin]]s—[[follicle-stimulating hormone]] and [[luteinizing hormone]] regulate the functions of the gonads in both sexes. Follicle-stimulating hormone stimulates sex cell production; luteinizing hormone stimulates [[gonadal hormone]] production. Gonadotropin levels rise in response to [[gonadotropin-releasing hormone]]. Negative feedback of gonadal hormones inhibits gonadotropin release.

[[Prolactin]] promotes milk production in human females. Its secretion is prompted by [[PRLH|prolactin-releasing hormone]] and inhibited by [[prolactin-inhibiting hormone]].

The intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland secretes only one enzyme that is [[melanocyte stimulating hormone]]. It is linked with the formation of the black pigment in our skin called melanin.

The [[Posterior pituitary|neurohypophysis]] stores and releases two hypothalamic hormones:
* [[Oxytocin]] stimulates powerful uterine contractions, which trigger labour and delivery of an infant, and milk ejection in nursing women. Its release is mediated reflexively by the hypothalamus and represents a positive feedback mechanism.
* [[Vasopressin|Antidiuretic hormone]] stimulates the kidney tubules to reabsorb and conserve water, resulting in small volumes of highly concentrated urine and decreased plasma osmolality. Antidiuretic hormone is released in response to high solute concentrations in the blood and inhibited by low solute concentrations in the blood. Hyposecretion results in diabetes insipidus.

== Thyroid gland ==
((Main|Thyroid))
The thyroid gland is located in the front of the neck, in front of the [[thyroid cartilage]], and is shaped like a butterfly, with two wings connected by a central ((wt|en|isthmus)). Thyroid tissue consists of follicles with a stored protein called colloid, containing[thyroglobulin], a precursor to other thyroid hormones, which are manufactured within the colloid.

The [[thyroid hormone]]s increase the rate of [[metabolism|cellular metabolism]], and include [[thyroxine]] (T4) and [[triiodothyronine]] (T3). Secretion is stimulated by the thyroid-stimulating hormone, secreted by the anterior pituitary. When thyroid levels are high, there is negative feedback that decreases the amount of Thyroid-stimulating hormone secreted. Most T4 is converted to T3 (a more active form) in the target tissues.

[[Calcitonin]], produced by the [[parafollicular cell]]s (C cells) of the thyroid gland in response to rising blood calcium levels, depresses blood calcium levels by inhibiting bone matrix resorption and enhancing calcium deposit in bones.
Excessive secretion cause hyperthyroidism and deficiency cause hypothyroidism.

== Parathyroid glands ==
((Main|Parathyroid gland))
The parathyroid glands, of which there are 4–6, are found on the back of the thyroid glands, and secrete [[parathyroid hormone]],<ref>[http://www.unomaha.edu/hpa/endocrinehistology.html Endocrinology: Tissue Histology.] ((Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100204054021/http://www.unomaha.edu/hpa/endocrinehistology.html |date=2010-02-04 )) ''[[University of Nebraska at Omaha]].''</ref> This causes an increase in blood calcium levels by targeting bone, the intestine, and the kidneys. The parathyroid hormone is the antagonist of [[calcitonin]]. Parathyroid hormone release is triggered by falling blood calcium levels and is inhibited by rising blood calcium levels.

== Adrenal glands ==
((Main|Adrenal gland))
The adrenal glands are located above the kidneys in humans and
in front of the kidneys in other animals. The adrenal glands produce a variety of hormones including [[adrenaline]] and the steroids [[aldosterone]]  [[cortisol]] and [[Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate|Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA).]]<ref name=dictionary>((cite web|title=Adrenal gland|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/medlineplus/adrenal%20gland|website=Medline Plus/Merriam-Webster Dictionary|access-date=11 February 2015))</ref> Adrenaline increases blood pressure, heart rate, and metabolism in reaction to stress, the aldosterone controls the body’s salt and water balance , the cortisol plays a role in stress response and the dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA) produces aids in production of body odor and growth of body hair during puberty.

== Pancreas ==
((Main|Pancreas))
The pancreas, located in the abdomen, below and behind the stomach, is both an [[Exocrine gland|exocrine]] and an endocrine gland. The [[alpha cell|alpha]] and [[beta cell]]s are the endocrine cells in the [[pancreatic islets]] that release [[insulin]] and [[glucagon]] and smaller amounts of other hormones into the blood. Insulin and glucagon influence [[blood sugar level]]s. Glucagon is released when the blood glucose level is low and stimulates the liver to release [[glucose]] into the blood. Insulin increases the rate of glucose uptake and metabolism by most body cells.

[[Somatostatin]] is released by [[delta cell]]s and acts as an inhibitor of GH, insulin, and glucagon.

== Gonads ==
((Main|Gonad))
The ovaries of the female, located in the pelvic cavity, release two main hormones. Secretion of [[estrogen]]s by the ovarian follicles begins at [[puberty]] under the influence of follicle-stimulating hormone. Estrogens stimulate the maturation of the female reproductive system and the development of secondary sexual characteristics. [[Progesterone]] is released in response to high blood levels of [[luteinizing hormone]]. It works with estrogens in establishing the [[menstrual cycle]].

The testes of the male begin to produce [[testosterone]] at puberty in response to luteinizing hormone. Testosterone promotes maturation of the male reproductive organs, development of secondary sex characteristics such as increased muscle and bone mass, and the growth of body hair.

== Pineal gland ==
((Main|Pineal gland))
The pineal gland is located in the [[diencephalon]] of the brain. It primarily releases [[melatonin]], which influences daily rhythms and may have an [[antigonadotropic]] effect in humans.((citation needed|date=November 2017)) It may also influence the melanotropes and melanocytes located in the skin.((citation needed|date=November 2017))

== Other hormone-producing structures ==
Many body organs not normally considered endocrine organs contain isolated cell clusters that secrete hormones. Examples include the [[heart]] ([[atrial natriuretic peptide]]); [[gastrointestinal tract]] organs ([[gastrin]], [[secretin]], and others); the [[placenta]] (hormones of pregnancy—[[estrogen]], [[progesterone]], and others); the [[kidney]]s ([[erythropoietin]] and [[renin]]); the [[thymus]]; [[skin]] ([[cholecalciferol]]); and [[adipose tissue]] ([[leptin]] and [[resistin]]).

==Development==
((main|Development of the endocrine system))

Endocrine glands derive from all three germ layers.((citation needed|date=November 2017))

The natural decrease in function of the female's ovaries during late middle age results in [[menopause]]. The efficiency of all endocrine glands seems to decrease gradually as ageing occurs. This leads to a generalized increase in the incidence of [[diabetes mellitus]] and a lower [[Basal metabolic rate|metabolic rate]].

==Functions==
===Hormones===
((main|Hormone))
Local chemical messengers, not generally considered part of the endocrine system, include [[Autocrine signalling|autocrine]]s, which act on the cells that secrete them, and [[Paracrine signalling|paracrine]]s, which act on a different cell type nearby.

The ability of a target cell to respond to a hormone depends on the presence of receptors, within the cell or on its plasma membrane, to which the hormone can bind.

Hormone receptors are dynamic structures. Changes in the number and sensitivity of hormone receptors may occur in response to high or low levels of stimulating hormones.

Blood levels of hormones reflect a balance between [[secretion]] and degradation/[[excretion]]. The [[liver]] and [[kidney]]s are the major organs that degrade hormones; breakdown products are excreted in urine and faeces.

Hormone half-life and duration of activity are limited and vary from hormone to hormone.

Interaction of hormones at target cells
''[[Permissiveness (biology)|Permissiveness]]'' is the situation in which a hormone cannot exert its full effects without the presence of another hormone.

''[[Synergy|Synergism]]'' occurs when two or more hormones produce the same effects in a target cell and their results are amplified.

''[[Antagonism (chemistry)|Antagonism]]'' occurs when a hormone opposes or reverses the effect of another hormone.

===Control===
((main|Endocrine system))
The endocrine glands belong to the body's control system.  The hormones which they produce help to regulate the functions of cells and tissues throughout the body.  Endocrine organs are activated to release their hormones by humoral, neural, or hormonal stimuli. Negative feedback is important in regulating [[hormone]] levels in the blood.

The [[nervous system]], acting through hypothalamic controls, can in certain cases override or modulate hormonal effects.

==Clinical significance==
===Disease===
[[File:Endocrine disorders world map - DALY - WHO2002.svg|thumb|[[Disability-adjusted life year]] for endocrine disorders per 100,000&nbsp;inhabitants in 2002.<ref>((cite web |url=https://www.who.int/entity/healthinfo/statistics/bodgbddeathdalyestimates.xls |title=Mortality and Burden of Disease Estimates for WHO Member States in 2002|format=xls |work=World Health Organization|year=2002 ))</ref>((Div col|small=yes|colwidth=10em))
((legend|#b3b3b3|no data))
((legend|#ffff65|less than 80))
((legend|#fff200|80–160))
((legend|#ffdc00|160–240))
((legend|#ffc600|240–320))
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((legend|#ff2c00|800–1000))
((legend|#cb0000|more than 1000))
((div col end))]]
((Main|Endocrine diseases))
[[Endocrine diseases|Diseases of the endocrine glands]] are common,<ref>((cite book
  | last = Kasper
  | title = Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine
  | url = https://archive.org/details/harrisonsprincip00kasp
  | url-access = limited
  | publisher = [[McGraw Hill]]
  | year = 2005 
  | pages = [https://archive.org/details/harrisonsprincip00kasp/page/n2102 2074]
  | isbn =978-0-07-139140-5
   ))</ref> including conditions such as [[diabetes mellitus]], [[thyroid]] disease, and [[obesity]].

Endocrine disease is characterized by irregulated hormone release (a productive [[pituitary adenoma]]), inappropriate response to signalling ([[hypothyroidism]]), lack of a gland ([[diabetes mellitus type 1]], diminished [[erythropoiesis]] in [[chronic kidney failure]]), or structural enlargement in a critical site such as the thyroid ([[toxic multinodular goitre]]). Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as a result of the loss of reserve, hyposecretion, [[agenesis]], atrophy, or active destruction. Hyperfunction can occur as a result of hypersecretion, loss of suppression, [[hyperplasia|hyperplastic]], or [[neoplastic]] change, or hyperstimulation.

Endocrinopathies are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary. Primary endocrine disease inhibits the action of downstream glands. Secondary endocrine disease is indicative of a problem with the pituitary gland. Tertiary endocrine disease is associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing hormones.((Citation needed|date=October 2009))

As the [[Thyroid cancer|thyroid]], and hormones have been implicated in signaling distant tissues to proliferate, for example, the [[estrogen receptor]] has been shown to be involved in certain [[breast cancer]]s. Endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine signaling have all been implicated in proliferation, one of the required steps of [[oncogenesis]].<ref>((cite journal |vauthors=Bhowmick NA, Chytil A, Plieth D, Gorska AE, Dumont N, Shappell S, Washington MK, Neilson EG, Moses HL |title=TGF-beta signaling in fibroblasts modulates the oncogenic potential of adjacent epithelia |journal=Science |volume=303 |issue=5659 |pages=848–51 |year=2004 |pmid=14764882 |doi=10.1126/science.1090922 |bibcode=2004Sci...303..848B |s2cid=1703215 ))</ref>

Other common diseases that result from endocrine dysfunction include [[Addison's disease]], [[Cushing's disease]] and [[Graves' disease|Grave's disease]]. Cushing's disease and Addison's disease are pathologies involving the dysfunction of the adrenal gland. Dysfunction in the adrenal gland could be due to primary or secondary factors and can result in hypercortisolism or hypocortisolism. Cushing's disease is characterized by the hypersecretion of the adrenocorticotropic hormone due to a pituitary adenoma that ultimately causes endogenous hypercortisolism by stimulating the adrenal glands.<ref>((cite journal |vauthors=Buliman A, Tataranu LG, Paun DL, Mirica A, Dumitrache C | year = 2016 | title = Cushing's disease: a multidisciplinary overview of the clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment | journal = Journal of Medicine & Life | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 12–18 ))</ref> Some clinical signs of Cushing's disease include obesity, moon face, and hirsutism.<ref name=":1">Vander, Arthur (2008). ''Vander's Human Physiology: the mechanisms of body function''. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. pp. 345-347</ref> Addison's disease is an endocrine disease that results from hypocortisolism caused by adrenal gland insufficiency. Adrenal insufficiency is significant because it is correlated with decreased ability to maintain blood pressure and blood sugar, a defect that can prove to be fatal.<ref>((Cite journal|last1=Inder|first1=Warrick J.|last2=Meyer|first2=Caroline|last3=Hunt|first3=Penny J.|date=2015-06-01|title=Management of hypertension and heart failure in patients with Addison's disease|journal=Clinical Endocrinology|language=en|volume=82|issue=6|pages=789–792|doi=10.1111/cen.12592|pmid=25138826|s2cid=13552007|issn=1365-2265))</ref>

Graves' disease involves the hyperactivity of the thyroid gland which produces the T3 and T4 hormones.<ref name=":1" /> [[Graves' disease]] effects range from excess sweating, fatigue, heat intolerance and high blood pressure to swelling of the eyes that causes redness, puffiness and in rare cases reduced or double vision.((citation needed|date=November 2017))

[[Graves' disease]] is the most common cause of [[hyperthyroidism]]; hyposecretion causes [[cretinism]] in infants and [[myxoedema]] in adults.

[[Hyperparathyroidism]] results in [[hypercalcemia]] and its effects and in extreme bone wasting. [[Hypoparathyroidism]] leads to [[hypocalcemia]], evidenced by tetany seizure and respiratory paralysis.
Hyposecretion of insulin results in diabetes mellitus; cardinal signs are polyuria, polydipsia, and polyphagia.

==References==
((Reflist))

((Endocrine system))
((Authority control))

((DEFAULTSORT:Endocrine Gland))
[[Category:Endocrine system]]

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