Today, environmental problems in the Philippines include pollution, mining and logging, deforestation, threats to environmental activists, dynamite fishing, landslides, coastal erosion, biodiversity loss, extinction, global warming and climate change.[1][2][3] Due to the paucity of extant documents, a complete history of land use in the archipelago remains unwritten. However, relevant data shows destructive land use increased significantly in the eighteenth century when Spanish colonialism enhanced its extraction of the archipelago's resources for the early modern global market.[4] The Philippines is projected to be one of the most vulnerable countries to the impacts of climate change,[5] which would exacerbate weather extremes. As the Philippines lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire, it is prone to natural disasters, like earthquakes, typhoons, and volcanic eruptions.[6][7] In 2021, the Philippines ranked the fourth most affected country from "weather-related loss events", partly due to the close proximity of major infrastructure and residential areas to the coast and unreliable government support.[8][9][10] One of the most devastating typhoons to hit the archipelago was Typhoon Haiyan, known locally as Yolanda, in 2013 that killed 6,300 people and left 28,689 injured.[11] Congress passed the Clean Air Act of 1999, the Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004, the Climate Change Act of 2009 to address environmental issues. The country is also a signatory to the Paris Agreement. However, research has found that outside of cities, the general public doesn't feel equally informed.[12][8] Environmental activists and land defenders, consisting mostly of Indigenous communities who have been attempting to bring attention to the environmental issues in the country have been met with violence or murder. As a result, the Philippines has been ranked one of the most dangerous places in the world for environmental activists.[13][2]

Broad Environmental Issues

Climate change

Both floods and droughts are predicted to increase.

Climate change is having serious impacts in the Philippines such as increased frequency and severity of natural disasters, sea level rise, extreme rainfall, resource shortages, and environmental degradation.[14] All of these impacts together have greatly affected the Philippines' agriculture, water, infrastructure, human health, and coastal ecosystems and they are projected to continue having devastating damages to the economy and society of the Philippines.[14]

According to the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), the Philippines is one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world.[15] The archipelago is situated along the Pacific Ocean's typhoon belt, leaving the country vulnerable to around 20 typhoons each year, a quarter of which are destructive.[16] The December 2021 typhoon known colloquially as Typhoon Odette caused around a billion dollars (₱51.8 billion) in infrastructure and agricultural damages and displaced about 630,000 people. The United Nations estimated that Typhoon Odette impacted the livelihoods of 13 million people, destroying their homes and leaving them without adequate food or water supplies.[17] More tragically, the physical and economic repercussions of Typhoon Odette led to the death of over 400 people as of December 2021.[17]

In addition to the Philippines' close proximity to the Pacific Ocean's typhoon belt, the Philippines is also located within the “Pacific Ring of Fire" which makes the country prone to recurrent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.[16] Compounding these issues, the impacts of climate change, such as accelerated sea level rise, exacerbate the state's high susceptibility to natural disasters, like flooding and landslides.[18] Aside from geography, climate change impacts regions with a history of colonization more intensely than regions without a history of colonization.[19] Colonized regions experience the repercussions of climate change most jarringly "because of their high dependence on natural resources, their geographical and climatic conditions and their limited capacity to effectively adapt to a changing climate."[19] Since low-income countries have a history of colonialism and resource exploitation, their environment lacks the diversity necessary to prevail against natural disasters.[20] A lack of biodiversity reduces the resilience of a specific region, leaving them more susceptible to natural disasters and the effects of climate change. With its history of Spanish colonization, the Philippines is not environmentally nor economically equipped to overcome issues it is currently dealing with, such as natural disasters and climate change. This inability to recover exacerbates the problem, creating a cycle of environmental and economic devastation in the country.[20]

Air pollution

Air pollution causes significant health and economic problems in the Philippines.[21] An estimated 66,000 deaths annually have been directly linked to air pollution.[22]

The Department of Environment and Natural Resources is tasked with implementing the Clean Air Act of 1999 to monitor and prevent air pollution in the country.[23]

Deforestation

Main article: Deforestation in the Philippines
This section's factual accuracy may be compromised due to out-of-date information. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (June 2021)

Over the course of the twentieth century, the forest cover of the Philippines dropped from 70 percent down to 20 percent.[24] In total, 46 species are endangered, and 4 have been eradicated completely. Only 3.2 percent of total rainforest is left. Based on an analysis of land use pattern maps and a road map, an estimated 9.8 million acres of forests were lost in the Philippines from 1934 to 1988.[25] Illegal logging occurs in the Philippines[26] and intensifies flood damage in some areas.[27]

According to scholar Jessica Mathews, short-sighted policies by the Filipino government have contributed to the high rate of deforestation:[28]

The government regularly granted logging concessions of less than ten years. Since it takes 30–35 years for a second-growth forest to mature, loggers had no incentive to replant. Compounding the error, flat royalties encouraged the loggers to remove only the most valuable species. A horrendous 40 percent of the harvestable lumber never left the forests but, having been damaged in the logging, rotted or was burned in place. The unsurprising result of these and related policies is that out of 17 million hectares of closed forests that flourished early in the century only 1.2 million remain today.

The Philippines had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.91/10, ranking it 91st globally out of 172 countries.[29]

Water pollution

This section's factual accuracy may be compromised due to out-of-date information. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (June 2021)
The Pasig River in Manila, one of the world's most polluted rivers.[30]

Further information: Pollution of the Pasig River

See also: Marcopper mining disaster, MT Princess Empress oil spill, and Guimaras oil spill

Although water resources have become scarce in some regions and seasons, the Philippines as a whole has more than enough surface and groundwater. However, neglecting to have a coherent environmental policy has led to the contamination of 58% of the groundwater in the Philippines.[31] The main source of pollution is untreated domestic and industrial wastewater.[30] Only one third of Philippine river systems are considered suitable for public water supply.[31]

It is estimated that in 2025, water availability will be marginal in most major cities and in 8 of the 19 major river basins.[32] Besides severe health concerns, water pollution also leads to problems in the fishing and tourism industries.[33] The national government recognized the problem and since 2004 has sought to introduce sustainable water resources development management (see below).[34]

Only 10% of the total population is connected to a sewer network.[35] The vast majority uses flush toilets connected to septic tanks. Since sludge treatment and disposal facilities are rare, most effluents are discharged into the ecosystem without treatment.[36] According to the Asian Development Bank, the Pasig River is one of the world's most polluted rivers, running through the capital city of Manila.[30] In March 2008, Manila Water announced that a wastewater treatment plant will be constructed in Taguig.[37] The first Philippine constructed wetland serving about 700 households was completed in 2006 in a peri-urban area of Bayawan which has been used to resettle families that lived along the coast in informal settlements and had no access to safe water supply and sanitation facilities.[38]

According to a report in 2003, the Pasig River is one of the most polluted rivers in the world with 150 tons of domestic waste and 75 tons of industrial waste dumped daily.[39]

Destructive fishing

General

Commercial fishing is causing environmental problems, exhausting food supply, and threatening livelihoods in the Philippines and around the world.[40] The Philippines has a strong fishing culture due to its historically productive and diverse marine ecosystems. In 2018, 927,617 people were officially reported as being involved in "capture fishing", and fish contributes to 50% of a Filipinos protein consumption.[41][42] This fish reliance has contributed to the current overfishing of 70% of Philippine fishing grounds and about 40% of fish caught being done illegally.[42][43] Coastal communities and local fishers organized themselves to implement sustainable fishing practices and protect fishing grounds from commercial fishing fleets that are destroying marine habitats.[40]

COVID-19 lockdowns seem to have allowed an increase in illegal fishing. Karagatan Patrol ships using VIIRS (visible infrared imaging lure lights) have detected an increase in apparent commercial fishing vessels from 3,602 in February 2020 (before COVID-19 lockdowns) to 5,950 in March, which went back down to 1,666 in May when lockdown eased.[44] These vessels were detected in waters that only allow small artisanal fishermen using passive fishing methods, due to the area being a spawning ground for most fish species.[44]

Dynamite and cyanide fishing

Dynamite fishing, cyanide fishing, and bottom trawling are fishing methods that cause extensive damage to coral reefs.[45] These practices are major threats to Philippine marine life and ecosystems.[45]

Dynamite fishing, also known as blast fishing and fish bombing, was outlawed in 1932.[46] It is a practice of throwing bombs into the water to kill and stun the fish caught in the blast, and then collecting the fish. The process kills both fish eggs and fish too young to sell. It also destroys the surrounding habitat, including coral reefs in the area. This damage is estimated to have cause $99.2 billion in losses a year, according to a study by Rhodora Azanza of the University of the Philippines.[43] As such, average fish yields have been reported to be decreasing. Jimely Flores, a senior marine scientist for Oceana, described the situation saying, "In some dynamited areas, if you dive you don't see any fish at all."[47]

Commercial fishing vessels have used cyanide to stun and capture coral reef fish in the Philippines.[45]

Solid waste

See also: Payatas dumpsite and Smokey Mountain

According to Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA), the country produces an average of 41 kilotons of garbage daily with almost 10 ktons/day coming from Metro Manila alone.[48]

While most local government units establish a Material Recovery Facility (MRF), implement segregation at the source, and collect and process all recyclable and biodegradable materials, most of the municipal solid wastes are either disposed in the dump sites or openly burned, which further worsen the quality of heavy polluted air in the cities.[49]

Plastic waste

According to World Bank calculations, the Philippines generates 2.7 million tons of plastic waste every year. Around 20% of the plastic waste makes its way to the sea.[50] One estimate ranks the Philippines as the world's third largest producer of oceanic plastic waste.[51] The Pasig River deposits 72,000 tons of plastic into the sea annually, mostly during monsoons, placing it among the world's top 10 rivers that bring plastic waste to the sea.[52]

Rising sea levels

One of the problems of environmental issues is about the sea level rise. Sea level rise is an increase in the level of the world's oceans due to the effects of global warming. Burning fossil fuels is one of the causes of global warming because it releases carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gasses into the atmosphere. The oceans then absorb the majority of this heat. Sea levels are rising as a result of climate change. This rise is likely to accelerate over the coming century and continue for centuries. The impacts of sea level rise include permanent flooding (inundation) of low-lying areas, and increased frequency, extent and depth of tidal inundation. Sea level rise will also cause most sandy beaches to recede (where beaches will move further inland) and erode.

The Philippines is experiencing sea-level rise, which is threatening more than 40% of the population that live in coastal areas. The rising sea levels are causing increased flooding, erosion, and salinization of freshwater resources. These impacts have significant economic, social, and environmental consequences, including the displacement of people and destruction of coastal infrastructure. To address the impacts of climate change, the Philippine government has taken steps to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the changing climate. The country has committed to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions by 70% by 2030, which will require significant changes in the energy and transportation sectors. The government is also implementing measures to increase the resilience of the population to the impacts of climate change. These measures include the construction of flood control infrastructure, disaster risk reduction policies, and programs to promote sustainable agriculture.

In conclusion, climate change is a significant issue in the Philippines that is already causing significant economic, social, and environmental impacts. The country is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to its location and its high population density. The government has taken steps to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the changing climate, but much more needs to be done to reduce the impacts of climate change on the country and its people. The Philippines must continue to prioritize climate action to build a more sustainable and resilient future.[53]

Environmentalism

Anti-nuclear movement

The anti-nuclear movement in the Philippines aimed to stop the construction of nuclear power facilities and terminate the presence of American military bases, which were believed to house nuclear weapons on Philippine soil. Anti-nuclear demonstrations were led by groups such as the Nuclear-Free Philippines Coalition (NFPC) and No Nukes Philippines. Coalitions argued that American bases in the Philippines perpetuated nuclear threats from other opponent nations of the United States, and that nuclear testing was transpiring in these bases. The nuclear threats and the bases also represented foreign intervention from the United States, which was a staunch issue among nationalists.[54]

A focal point for protests in the late 1970s and 1980s was the proposed Bataan Nuclear Power Plant (BNPP), which was built by ousted President Ferdinand Marcos but never operated. The NFPC was formed by Senator Lorenzo M. Tañada, considered the father of the anti-nuclear movement in the Philippines, to stop the opening of the power plant, which it succeeded in pursuing. The Bataan nuclear project was criticized for being a potential threat to public health and for risks associated with the plant being located in an earthquake-prone location on the Bataan Peninsula. The power plant was also less than 180 kilometers away from Metro Manila, thus implicating multiple economic centers and regional sectors.[55]

The anti-nuclear movement campaigned to remove foreign military bases in the Philippines. In 1991, the Philippine Senate voted to reject a new bases agreement treaty with the US, after which Tañada stood up from his wheelchair and was greeted with applause. The US left behind tons of toxic waste after its withdrawal and anti-nuclear campaigners provides assistance for the bases' cleanup.[55] The former bases are now profitable tourist sites in the Philippines, such as the Subic Naval Bay in Subic and the Clark Air Base in Clark, Pampanga, which is a legacy of the anti-nuclear movement.[56]

The movement continues to face challenges as attempts have been made to open the abandoned Bataan Nuclear Power Plant. In 2017 Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power Co. Ltd. (KEPCO) and Russia's Rosatom offered to negotiate to rehabilitate the plant. Opposition to the nuclear plant immediately responded and quickly raised concerns on long-term disposal of highly toxic waste, safety and health issues, reliance on imported uranium, the high cost of decommissioning, and other adverse effects.[57][58][59]

Climate movement

Activists in the Philippines have organized activities to call for government action to address climate change. They have protested government policies that have allowed reclamation projects and mining activities and the killing of activists.[60][61]

Activists have called for higher emission cuts in the Philippines and in developed countries.[60]

Youth Strike for Climate

Philippine youth activists have participated in the global Youth Strike for Climate by organizing protest actions in different parts of the country.[60][62] Youth activists have also protested the building of coal energy plants and their funding by multinational banks such as Standard Chartered.[63]

Threats to environmentalists

Further information: Extrajudicial killings and forced disappearances in the Philippines

The Philippines is sometimes considered the most dangerous country for environmental activists.[64][65] According to environmental watchdog Global Witness, at least 30 land and environmental defenders were killed in the Philippines in 2018, many of whom were in conflict with private business groups.[66] Kalikasan People's Network for the Environment recorded 46 deaths in 2019.[67] The group said activists have also been harassed, vilified, "red-tagged," and labeled as terrorists or "enemies of the state."[67][66][68]

Environmental groups have asked Congress to pass a Human Rights Defenders Bill to help protect activists and their families.[67]

Government policy

Main article: Department of Environment and Natural Resources

Environmental protection

The Department of Environment and Natural Resources is responsible for creating, supporting, and enforcing policies on environmental protection by the Philippine government. The department is also tasked with ensuring sustainable management of the Philippines' natural resources.[69] The Philippine Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) is responsible for environmental impact assessments, pollution prevention and control, as well as enforcing six main environmental laws in the Philippines.[70] The Philippines has also signed into several international environmental treaties,[71] with CITES protecting species from overexploitation due to international trade, and ratified the Paris Agreement.

Sustainable development

The Philippines formulated the Sustainable Development Strategy to tackle environmental issues and address the need to sustain development and growth.[72] The Sustainable Development Strategy proposes policies for assimilating environmental considerations in administration, apposite pricing of natural resources, conservation of biodiversity, rehabilitation of ecosystems, control of population growth and human resources development, inducing growth in rural areas, promotion of environmental education, strengthening citizens' participation, and promoting small to medium-sized enterprises and sustainable agricultural and forestry practices.[73] One of the initiatives signed in part of the strategy was the 1992 Earth Summit.

Upon signing the 1992 Earth Summit,[74] the government of Philippines has been constantly looking into many different initiatives to improve the environmental aspects of the country.

Writ of Kalikasan

Prerogative writs

A Writ of Kalikasan is a legal remedy under Philippine law that provides protection of one's constitutional right to a healthy environment, as outlined in Section 16, Article II of the Philippine Constitution, which states that the "state shall protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature."[75] Kalikasan is a Filipino word for "nature".[75]

The writ is comparable to the writ of amparo and the writ of habeas corpus.[75] In contrast, this writ protects one's right for a healthy environment rather than constitutional rights.[76] The Writ of Kalikasan originated in the Philippines, whereas the two aforementioned writs have roots in European and Latin American law.[75]

Clean Air Act

Republic Act No. 8749, also known as the Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999, mandates the government to create and implement a national program for preventing and managing air pollution. The law also tasks the government to monitor air quality throughout the country.[23] The Department of Environment and Natural Resources issued Administrative Order No. 81 in 2000 outlining its implementing rules and regulations for the Clean Air Act. It also issued in 2004 Administrative Order No. 2004-26 amending Rule XIX of DENR Administrative Order No. 2000-81.[23]

See also

Species:

References

Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Country Studies. Federal Research Division.

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