Filipino mestizo
The ancestry of Philippine National Hero, José Rizal, includes ethnic Tagalog, Hokkien Chinese, Spanish, and even Japanese,[1][2] roots.
Regions with significant populations
Philippines, United States, Canada, Spain
Languages
Philippine languages, English, Spanish
Religion
Predominantly Christianity
(Roman Catholic majority, Protestant minority)
Related ethnic groups
Sangley, Chinese Filipinos, Spanish Filipinos, Japanese Filipinos, Indian Filipinos, Americans in the Philippines
Demographics of
the Philippines
Filipinos
Mestizos as illustrated in the Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas, 1734

In the Philippines, Filipino Mestizo (Spanish: mestizo (masculine) / mestiza (feminine); Filipino/Tagalog: Mestiso (masculine) / Mestisa (feminine)), or colloquially Tisoy, is a name used to refer to people of mixed native Filipino and any foreign ancestry.[3] The word mestizo itself is of Spanish origin; it was first used in the Americas to describe people of mixed Amerindian and European ancestry.[4] Currently and historically, the Chinese mestizos were and are still ordinarily the most populous subgroup among mestizos; they have historically been very influential in the creation of Filipino nationalism.[5] The Spanish mestizos also historically and currently exist as a smaller population, but remain a significant minority among mestizos which historically enjoyed prestigious status in Philippine society during Spanish colonial times.

History

Spanish period

Main article: Spanish Filipino

See also: Philippine Spanish
Spanish Filipino
Spanish-Filipina Mestiza wearing the traditional María Clara gown of the Philippines and the long hair tradition of the Filipina women during the colonial era
Regions with significant populations
Philippines
Languages
Filipino, other Philippine languages, English and Spanish.
Religion
Christianity (Roman Catholicism, and Protestantism)
Related ethnic groups
Filipino people, Filipino Mestizos

A Spanish expedition led by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi in 1565 started a period of Spanish colonization of the Philippines which lasted for 333 years. The Roman Catholic Church played an important role in the Spanish colonization of the Philippines beyond the preaching of the Catholic faith. Spanish missionaries contributed to education, healthcare, scientific research and even public works. The Spanish government and religious missionaries studied the native Filipino languages and published the first grammars and dictionaries of Tagalog, the Bisayan languages and others. In the earlier period, Roman Catholic rituals were adapted to native beliefs and values. As a result, a folk Roman Catholicism developed in the Philippines.[6] European settlers from Spain and Mexico immigrated to the islands and their offspring (of either pure Spanish, or mixed Spanish and Native descent) adopted the culture of their parents and grandparents. Most Filipinos of Spanish descent in the Philippines are of Basque ancestry[7] Some families still privately use Spanish in the households. In addition, Chavacano (a creole language based largely on the Spanish) is widely spoken in Zamboanga and neighboring regions, as well as Cavite and Ternate. Spanish era periodicals record that as much as one-third of the inhabitants of the island of Luzon possessed varying degrees of Spanish admixture.[8] In addition to Manila, select cities such as Bacolod, Cebu, Iloilo or Zamboanga which had important military fortifications and commercial ports during the Spanish era also had sizable Mestizo communities.[9]

Chinese immigration

Main article: Sangley

See also: Chinese Filipino
Chinese Filipino
咱儂 / 咱人 / 華菲人
Chinito / Chinita / Intsik
Pilipinong Tsino
Lannang / Chinoy / Tsinoy
Chinese-Filipina girl wearing the María Clara gown, the traditional gown of Filipina women
Total population
At least 1.5 million are of pure Chinese ancestry.
Regions with significant populations
Metro Manila, Baguio, Central Visayas, Metro Iloilo-Guimaras, Metro Davao
Negros, Pangasinan, Pampanga, Tarlac, Cagayan de Oro
Vigan, Laoag, Laguna, Rizal, Lucena, Naga, Zamboanga City, Sulu
Languages
Filipino, English and other languages of the Philippines
Hokkien, Mandarin, Cantonese, Teochew, Hakka Chinese, various other varieties of Chinese
Religion
Christianity (Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, P.I.C, Iglesia ni Cristo), Buddhism, Islam, Daoism
Related ethnic groups
Sangley, Overseas Chinese

Even before the Spanish arrived in the Philippines, the Chinese had traded with the natives of the Philippines. During the colonial period, there was an increase in the number of Chinese immigrants in the Philippines. The Spaniards restricted the activities of the Chinese and confined them to the Parián which was located near Intramuros, which later they could only live outside it if they became Christian, baptized under the Spanish friars. Most of the Chinese residents earned their livelihood as merchant traders.

Initially, many of the Chinese who arrived during the Spanish period were Hokkien initially from "Chiõ Chiu" (Zhangzhou) and some from "Chin Chiu" (Quanzhou), then later Amoy (Xiamen) and many from "Chinchew" (Quanzhou) who were usually merchants and rarely Macanese Cantonese or Taishanese from Macau and "Cantón" (Guangzhou or Guangdong province in general), who usually worked as cooks or laborers ("cargadores" coolie) or artisan craftsmen. By the American period, more "Fukien" still came and entered and continued the retail trade and currently make up most of the Chinese Filipino population with a few Cantonese also coming to build the Kennon Road / Benguet Road to Baguio. The Chinese residents of the islands were encouraged and sometimes incentivized to intermarry with other native or Spanish Filipinos and convert to Roman Catholicism. Both native Filipinos and Chinese who lacked surnames were encouraged to adopt one from the Catálogo alfabético de apellidos, an alphabetical list of Spanish family names, introduced by the government in the mid-19th century.

During the United States colonial period, the Chinese Exclusion Act of the United States was also applied to the Philippines once it was under US administration.[10] Despite this, many were still able to find ways to migrate into the Philippines during the era via legal exceptions or loopholes or illegal means. There was a legal exception for "merchant's sons" with a Landing Certificate of Residence and loophole through family adoption through it. Some also came illegally by stowing away in ships and illegally sneaking past port authority or their own boats landing where there was no coast guard coverage before during that era. Some later also used these as a stepping stone to move to mainland United States.

After the Second World War and the victory of the Communists in the Chinese Civil War, many refugees who fled from Mainland China settled in the Philippines. These groups in the 20th century formed the bulk of the current population of Chinese Filipinos.[11] After the Philippines achieved full sovereignty on July 4, 1946, Chinese immigrants became naturalized Filipino citizens, while the children of these new citizens who were born in the country acquired Filipino citizenship from birth.[12]

Chinese Filipinos are one of the largest overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia.[13] Mestizos de Sangley—Filipinos with at least some Chinese ancestry descended from the Spanish colonial era—comprise 18–27% of the Philippine population.[14] There used to be a record of roughly 1.5 million Filipinos with pure Chinese ancestry, or about 1.6% of the population back then.[15] There are no consistent ethnic-based census in the Philippine census currently.

Ethnic groups in colonial Philippines

This section contains too many or overly lengthy quotations. Please help summarize the quotations. Consider transferring direct quotations to Wikiquote or excerpts to Wikisource. (July 2022)
American settlement in the Philippines
Filipino-American family, Philippines
Regions with significant populations
Angeles City · Baguio · San Fernando, La Union · Calamba · Tuguegarao · Calapan · Legazpi · Iloilo · Olongapo · Pagadian · Cagayan de Oro · Davao · Koronadal · Butuan · Cotabato · Metro Cebu · Metro Manila
Languages
Filipino · American English · Philippine English
Religion
Protestantism · Roman Catholicism · Buddhism
Japanese Filipino, Japanese people in the Philippines
日系 / 日系人 / 日系フィリピン人
にっけい / にっけいじん
Hapon / Hapones / Haponesa
Pilipinong Hapones
Nikkei / Nikkeijin / Japino / Japinoy
Takayama Ukon was a Japanese Catholic daimyō who migrated to the Philippines together with 300 Kirishitan refugees in 1614 as one of the many waves of Japanese immigration to the Philippines during the Christian persecution throughout 1600's in Japan under Tokugawa shogunate. Their descendance diluted to the local populations without records of number.
Total population
Japanese nationals
16,894 (Oct. 2019)[16]
People of Japanese descent
200,000[17][18][19] (2006)
Regions with significant populations
Metro Manila, Davao, the Visayas, Ilocos Norte, La Union
Languages
Japanese, Filipino, other Philippine languages, English
Religion
Christianity,[20] Shinto, Buddhism.
Related ethnic groups
Japanese people, foreign-born Japanese, Japanese diaspora

Except for the many Chinese migration waves, the history of racial mixture in the Philippines occurred on a smaller scale than other Spanish territories in Americas after and during the Spanish colonial period from the 16th to the 19th century. This ethno-religious social stratification schema was similar to the casta system used in Hispanic America, with some major differences.

The system was used for taxation purposes, with indios and negritos who lived within the colony paying a base tax, mestizos de sangley paying double the base tax, sangleys paying quadruple; blancos, however, paid no tax [citation needed]. The tax system was abolished after the Philippine Declaration of Independence from Spain in 1898, and the term "Filipino" was used to include the entire population of the Philippines regardless of ancestry, as per the Philippine nationality law.

Term Definition
Españoles / Castellanos (Spaniards / Spanish) Peninsulares Person of pure Spanish descent born and raised in Spain ("from the Iberian Peninsula").
Americano Person of Criollo (pure or almost pure Spanish), Castizo (3/4 Spanish, 1/4 Amerindian), or Mestizo (1/2 Spanish, 1/2 Amerindian) descent born and raised in Spanish America ("from the Americas").
Insulares / Filipinos Person of pure Spanish descent born and raised in the Philippines ("from the Philippine Islands").
Cristianos (Christian subjects of the Spanish Crown) Mestizos (usually Christianized) Mestizo de Español Person of mixed Spanish or Criollo/Americano and native Austronesian descent.
Tornatrás Person of mixed Spanish and Chinese descent or mixed Spanish, Chinese, and native Austronesian descent.
Mestizo de Sangley Person of mixed Chinese and native Austronesian descent or sometimes rarely of mixed Japanese ("xaponéses") descent lumped in.
Mestizo de Bombay Person of mixed Indian and native Austronesian descent.
Indio (Christianized) Person of pure native Austronesian descent who was Christianized, usually under the Spanish missionaries of the Catholic Church.
Sangley / Chino (Christianized) Person of pure Chinese descent who was Christianized, usually by the Spanish missionaries of the Catholic Church.
Indio (Unchristianized) Person of pure native Austronesian descent who was not Christianized.
Sangley / Chino (Unchristianized) Person of pure Chinese descent who was not Christianized.
Moro Person who was Islamized, usually native Austronesian descent or etc.
Negrito Person of usually pure indigenous pre-Austronesian descent, such as a member of the Aeta, Ati, Batak, Mamanwa, etc.

The Spanish deliberately implemented incentives to entangle the various races together to stop rebellion:[21][22][23]

It is needful to encourage public instruction in all ways possible, permit newspapers subject to a liberal censure, to establish in Manila a college of medicine, surgery, and pharmacy: in order to break down the barriers that divide the races, and amalgamate them all into one. For that purpose, the Spaniards of the country, the Chinese mestizos, and the (native) Filipinos shall be admitted with perfect equality as cadets of the military corps; the personal-service tax shall be abolished, or an equal and general tax shall be imposed, to which all the Spaniards shall be subject. This last plan appears to me more advisable, as the poll-tax is already established, and it is not opportune to make a trial of new taxes when it is a question of allowing the country to be governed by itself. Since the annual tribute is unequal, the average shall be taken and shall be fixed, consequently, at fifteen or sixteen reals per whole tribute, or perhaps one peso fuerte annually from each adult tributary person. This regulation will produce an increase in the revenue of 200,000 or 300,000 pesos fuertes, and this sum shall be set aside to give the impulse for the amalgamation of the races, favoring crossed marriages by means of dowries granted to the single women in the following manner. To a Chinese mestizo woman who marries a (native) Filipino shall be given 100 pesos; to a (native) Filipino woman who marries a Chinese mestizo, 100 pesos; to a Chinese mestizo woman who marries a Spaniard, 1,000 pesos; to a Spanish woman who marries a Chinese mestizo, 2,000 pesos; to a (native) Filipino woman who marries a Spaniard, 2,000 pesos; to a Spanish woman who marries a (native) Filipino chief, 3,000 or 4,000 pesos. Some mestizo and (native) Filipino alcaldes-mayor of the provinces shall be appointed. It shall be ordered that when a (native) Filipino chief goes to the house of a Spaniard, he shall seat himself as the latter's equal. In a word, by these and other means, the idea that they and the Castilians are two kinds of distinct races shall be erased from the minds of the natives, and the families shall become related by marriage in such manner that when free of the Castilian dominion should any exalted (native) Filipinos try to expel or enslave our race, they would find it so interlaced with their own that their plan would be practically impossible.'[24]

Persons classified as blancos (whites) and those with Spanish ancestry were subdivided into the peninsulares (persons of pure Spanish descent born in Spain); insulares (persons of pure Spanish descent born in the Philippines i.e. criollos); mestizos de español (persons of mixed Austronesian and Spanish ancestry), and tornatrás (persons of mixed Austronesian, Chinese, and Spanish ancestry).

Persons of pure or mostly Spanish descent living in the Philippines who were born in Hispanic America were classified as Americanos. Mestizos and mulattoes born in Hispanic America living in the Philippines kept their legal classification as such. Mulattos usually came as indentured servants to the Americanos. Philippine-born children of mestizos and mulattoes from Hispanic America were classified based on patrilineal descent.

The indigenous peoples of the Philippines were referred to as Indios (for those of pure Austronesian descent) and negritos. Indio was a general term applied to native Austronesians as a legal classification; it was only applied to Christianised natives who lived in proximity to the Spanish colonies. Persons who lived outside of Manila, Cebu, and areas with a large Spanish concentration were classified as such: naturales were baptised Austronesians of the lowland and coastal towns. Unbaptised Austronesians and Aetas who lived in the towns were classified as salvajes (savages) or infieles (infidels). Remontados ("those who went to the mountains") and tulisanes (bandits) were Austronesians and Aetas who refused to live in towns and moved upland. They were considered to live outside the social order as Catholicism was a driving force in everyday life as well as determinant of social class.

The Spanish legally classified the Aetas as ''negritos'', based on their appearance. The word term would be misinterpreted and used by future European scholars as an ethnoracial term in and of itself. Both Christianised Aetas who lived in the colony and unbaptised Aetas who lived in tribes outside of the colony were classified negrito. Christianised Aetas who lived in Manila were not allowed to enter Intramuros and lived in areas designated for indios. Persons of Aeta descent were also viewed as being outside the social order as they usually lived in tribes beyond settlements and resisted conversion to Christianity.

The fluid nature of racial integration in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial period was recorded by many travelers and public figures at the time, who were favorably impressed by the lack of racial discrimination, as compared to the situation in other European colonies.

Among them was Sir John Bowring, Governor General of British Hong Kong and a well-seasoned traveler who had written several books about the different cultures in Asia. He described the situation as "admirable" during a visit to the Philippines in the 1870s:

The lines separating entire classes and races, appeared to me less marked than in the Oriental colonies. I have seen on the same table, Spaniards, Mestizos (Chinos cristianos) and Indios, priests and military. There is no doubt that having one Religion forms great bonding. And more so to the eyes of one that has been observing the repulsion and differences due to race in many parts of Asia. And from one (like myself) who knows that race is the great divider of society, the admirable contrast and exception to racial discrimination so markedly presented by the people of the Philippines is indeed admirable."[25]

Another foreign witness was English engineer, Frederic H. Sawyer, who had spent most of his life in different parts of Asia and lived in Luzon for fourteen years. His impression was that as far as racial integration and harmony was concerned, the situation in the Philippines was not equaled by any other colonial power:

... Spaniards and natives lived together in great harmony, and do not know where I could find a colony in which Europeans mixes as much socially with the natives. Not in Java, where a native of position must dismount to salute the humblest Dutchman. Not in British India, where the Englishwoman has now made the gulf between British and native into a bottomless pit.[26]

Statistics

Though the Philippines upholds the principle of racial equality and does not actively gather information on specific races, statistics from historical immigration records,[27] census results,[28][29] and ship passenger logs,[30] can be used to acertain the populations of specific types of Filipino mestizos.

Immigration logs of Mexican Filipinos

Stephanie J. Mawson, by rummaging through records in the archives of Mexico[30] discovered that the Spaniards were not the only immigrant group to the Philippines; Peru and Mexico too sent soldiers to the islands,[30] and in fact outnumbered the Spaniards who immigrated to the Philippines.[30]

Geographic distribution and year of settlement of the Latin-American immigrant soldiers assigned to the Philippines in the 1600s.[30]
Location 1603 1636 1642 1644 1654 1655 1670 1672
Manila[30] 900 446 — 407 821 799 708 667
Fort Santiago[30] — 22 — — 50 — 86 81
Cavite[30] — 70 — — 89 — 225 211
Cagayan[30] 46 80 — — — — 155 155
Calamianes[30] — — — — — — 73 73
Caraga[30] — 45 — — — — 81 81
Cebu[30] 86 50 — — — — 135 135
Formosa[30] — 180 — — — — — —
Moluccas[30] 80 480 507 — 389 — — —
Otón[30] 66 50 — — — — 169 169
Zamboanga[30] — 210 — — 184 — — —
Other[30] 255 — — — — — — —
[30] — — — — — — — —
Total Reinforcements[30] 1,533 1,633 2,067 2,085 n/a n/a 1,632 1,572

The book, "Intercolonial Intimacies Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines, 1898–1964 By Paula C. Park" citing "Forzados y reclutas: los criollos novohispanos en Asia (1756-1808)" gave a higher number of later Mexican soldier-immigrants to the Philippines, pegging the number at 35,000 immigrants in the 1700s,[31] in a Philippine population which was only around 1.5 Million,[32] thus forming 2.33% of the population.[33]

Tribute counts of Spanish Filipinos

In the late 1700s to early 1800s, Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga, an Agustinian Friar, in his Two Volume Book: "Estadismo de las islas Filipinas"[28][29] compiled a census of the Spanish-Philippines based on the tribute counts (Which represented an average family of seven to ten children[34] and two parents, per tribute)[35] and came upon the following statistics:

Data reported for the 1800 as divided by ethnicity and province[28][29]
Province Native Tributes Spanish Mestizo Tributes All Tributes[a]
Tondo[28]: 539  14,437-1/2 3,528 27,897-7
Cavite[28]: 539  5,724-1/2 859 9,132-4
Laguna[28]: 539  14,392-1/2 336 19,448-6
Batangas[28]: 539  15,014 451 21,579-7
Mindoro[28]: 539  3,165 3-1/2 4,000-8
Bulacan[28]: 539  16,586-1/2 2,007 25,760-5
Pampanga[28]: 539  16,604-1/2 2,641 27,358-1
Bataan[28]: 539  3,082 619 5,433
Zambales[28]: 539  1,136 73 4,389
Ilocos[29]: 31  44,852-1/2 631 68,856
Pangasinan[29]: 31  19,836 719-1/2 25,366
Cagayan[29]: 31  9,888 0 11,244-6
Camarines[29]: 54  19,686-1/2 154-1/2 24,994
Albay[29]: 54  12,339 146 16,093
Tayabas[29]: 54  7,396 12 9,228
Cebu[29]: 113  28,112-1/2 625 28,863
Samar[29]: 113  3,042 103 4,060
Leyte[29]: 113  7,678 37-1/2 10,011
Caraga[29]: 113  3,497 0 4,977
Misamis[29]: 113  1,278 0 1,674
Negros Island[29]: 113  5,741 0 7,176
Iloilo[29]: 113  29,723 166 37,760
Capiz[29]: 113  11,459 89 14,867
Antique[29]: 113  9,228 0 11,620
Calamianes[29]: 113  2,289 0 3,161
TOTAL 299,049 13,201 424,992-16

The Spanish Mestizo population as a proportion of the provinces widely varied; with as high as 19% of the population of Tondo province [28]: 539  (The most populous province and former name of Manila), to Pampanga 13.7%,[28]: 539  Cavite at 13%,[28]: 539  Laguna 2.28%,[28]: 539  Batangas 3%,[28]: 539  Bulacan 10.79%,[28]: 539  Bataan 16.72%,[28]: 539  Ilocos 1.38%,[29]: 31  Pangasinan 3.49%,[29]: 31  Albay 1.16%,[29]: 54  Cebu 2.17%,[29]: 113  Samar 3.27%,[29]: 113  Iloilo 1%,[29]: 113  Capiz 1%,[29]: 113  Bicol 20%,[36] and Zamboanga 40%.[36] Spanish-Filipinos maintaining a minumum median of 5% of the total Philippine population, once summing up all provinces.

Modern census of Chinese Filipinos

Meanwhile, in 2013, according to older records held by the Senate of the Philippines, there were approximately 1.35 million ethnic (or pure) Chinese within the Philippine population, while Filipinos with any Chinese descent comprised 22.8 million of the population.[27]

Modern term and usage

"Tisoy" redirects here. For the 2019 tropical cyclone named by PAGASA as "Tisoy", see Typhoon Kammuri.

In modern times, many of the descendants of the above Filipino mestizos may technically be classified as Tornatrás, but due to the term's obsolescence in mainstream usage, most Filipino mestizo descendants would usually identify as just mestizo or even just "Filipino". In modern times, the descendants of the Filipino mestizos are still very active in the politics of the Philippines, especially controlling the bulk of the country's political families and compose a considerable part of the Philippine population especially its bourgeoisie,[37] whereas the modern Chinese Filipino community and the few remaining Spanish Filipino families both contribute major shares in the Philippine economy,[38][39][40][37] of which a majority of the Philippines' richest billionaires are either of Chinese Filipino background, such as the Sy family (SM Group, BDO, etc.), Gokongwei family (JG Summit, Robinsons, etc.), Lucio Tan & family (LT Group, Philippine Airlines (PAL), etc.), Tony Tan Caktiong & family (Jollibee Corp.), Ramon Ang & family (San Miguel Corp. (SMC)), and many more, or (less commonly) of Spanish Filipino background, such as Zobel de Ayala family (Ayala Corp.), Razon family (International Container Terminal Services, Inc. (ICTSI), Solaire, etc.), Aboitiz family (Aboitiz Equity Ventures, Aboitiz Power, etc.), Araneta family (Smart Araneta Coliseum), Lhuillier family (Cebuana Lhuillier), etc.

Today, the word mestizo is shortened as tisoy just as is the word Pinoy for Filipino. It is used for all Filipinos with foreign ancestry, particularly those born in the diaspora or as children of recent immigrants.

See also

Comparisons with other countries

References

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  2. ^ Rizal, José (1918). Rizal's Own Story of His Life. National Book Company. p. 11.
  3. ^ "Mestizo - Define Mestizo at Dictionary.com". Dictionary.com.
  4. ^ "Mestizo - Define Mestizo at Dictionary.com". Dictionary.com.
  5. ^ Tan, Antonio S. (1986). "The Chinese Mestizos and the Formation of the Filipino Nationality". Archipel. 32: 142. doi:10.3406/arch.1986.2316 – via Persée.
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  12. ^ "Website Disabled". homestead.com.
  13. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on October 18, 2013. Retrieved February 26, 2014.((cite web)): CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  14. ^ Sangley, Intsik und Sino : die chinesische Haendlerminoritaet in den Philippine. Universität Bielefeld. July 7, 1993.
  15. ^ "The ethnic Chinese variable in domestic and foreign policies in Malaysia and Indonesia" (PDF). Retrieved April 23, 2012.
  16. ^ Japan-Philippines relations : Basic Data, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan.
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  29. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z ESTADISMO DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS TOMO SEGUNDO By Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga (Original Spanish)
  30. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Convicts or Conquistadores? Spanish Soldiers in the Seventeenth-Century Pacific By Stephanie J. Mawson AGI, México, leg. 25, núm. 62; AGI, Filipinas, leg. 8, ramo 3, núm. 50; leg. 10, ramo 1, núm. 6; leg. 22, ramo 1, núm. 1, fos. 408 r –428 v; núm. 21; leg. 32, núm. 30; leg. 285, núm. 1, fos. 30 r –41 v .
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  33. ^ Garcia, María Fernanda (1998). "Forzados y reclutas: los criollos novohispanos en Asia (1756-1808)". Bolotin Archivo General de la Nación. 4 (11).
  34. ^ "How big were families in the 1700s?" By Keri Rutherford
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  37. ^ a b Chirot, Daniel; Reid, Anthony (1997). Essential Outsiders: Chinese and Jews in the Modern Transformation of Southeast Asia and Central Europe. University of Washington Press. p. 54. ISBN 9780295800264.
  38. ^ Chua, Amy (2003). World On Fire. Knopf Doubleday Publishing. pp. 3, 6. ISBN 978-0385721868.
  39. ^ Gambe, Annabelle (2000). Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 33. ISBN 978-0312234966.
  40. ^ Folk, Brian (2003). Ethnic Business: Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia. Routledge. p. 93. ISBN 978-1138811072.

Further reading

Notes

  1. ^ Including others such as Latin-Americans and Chinese-Mestizos, pure Chinese paid tribute but were not Philippine citizens as they were transients who returned to China, and Spaniards were exempt
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