Aside from these principles constitutionally recognized, the foreign policy has been based on some doctrines. The Estrada Doctrine as the most influential and representative instrument in this field, proclaimed in the early 1930s and strictly applied until 2000,[3] claimed that foreign governments should not judge, positively or negatively, the governments or changes in government of other nations, since such action would be a breach of their sovereignty.[23] This policy was said to be based on the principles of non-intervention, peaceful resolution of disputes and self-determination of all nations.[3]
The Mexican foreign service officially started in 1822,[27] the year after the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba, which marked the beginning of the country's independence.[28] In 1831, legislation was passed that underpinned the establishment of diplomatic representations with other states in Europe and the Americas.[27]
In the early 1970s, Mexico recognized the People's Republic of China as the sole and legitimate government of China,[30] therefore issues related to the Republic of China (Taiwan) are managed through the Office of Consular Liaison under the circumscription of the Consulate General of Mexico in the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau.[31] In addition, Mexico does not recognize Kosovo as an independent country.[32]
Historically, Mexico has remained neutral in international conflicts.[33] However, in recent years some political parties have proposed an amendment of the Constitution in order to allow the Mexican army, air force or navy to collaborate with the United Nations in peacekeeping missions, or to provide military help to countries that officially ask for it.[34]
List of countries with diplomatic relations
List of countries which Mexico maintains diplomatic relations with:
Both nations established diplomatic relations on February 4, 2020, in New York City, with the signing done by their respective ambassadors to the United Nations.[163]
Central African Republic does not have an accreditation to Mexico.
Mexico is accredited to the Central African Republic from its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York City.
Chad and Mexico established diplomatic relations on February 25, 1976.[164] In May 2002, Chadian Prime Minister Nagoum Yamassoum paid a visit to the Mexican city of Monterrey to attend the Monterrey Consensus conference.[165]
Chad is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.[166]
Mexico is accredited to Chad from its embassy in Cairo, Egypt.[167]
After the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, Mexico was the only country to condemn the Italian occupation of Ethiopia at the League of Nations. Since then, relations between the two nations have strengthened.
In Addis Ababa, Ethiopia thanked Mexico by naming a square in the city called "Mexico Square". Mexico named a metro station in Mexico City called Metro Etiopía.
Ethiopia is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.[176]
Ghana and Mexico established diplomatic relations on August 8, 1961. Soon afterwards, both nations opened embassies in each other's capitals, respectively. In 1972, Ghana closed its embassy in Mexico City. Mexico closed its embassy in Accra in 1980.[179] Mexico re-opened its embassy in Ghana in 2013.
Ghana is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.[180]
Mexico recognized and established diplomatic relations with Namibia on April 17, 1990. In 1993, Mexico opened an embassy in Windhoek, however, the embassy was closed in 2002.[195]
Mexico is accredited to Namibia from its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.[154]
Namibia is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.[196]
There were no official relations between Mexico and South Africa before 1993. After the end of Apartheid in South Africa, the countries established relations.
Mexico and Zimbabwe established diplomatic relations in March 1985. Mexico opened an embassy in Harare in 1990, however, the embassy later closed in 1994.[213]
Mexico is accredited to Zimbabwe from its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.[154]
Zimbabwe is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.[214]
Other issues of concern are the ones related to conservation and protection of the environment, the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC) consists of a declaration of principles and objectives concerning this issues as well as concrete measures to further cooperation on these matters tripartitely.[218] In addition, the Independent Task Force on North America advocates a greater economic and social integration between Canada, Mexico and the U.S. as a region.[219] It is a group of prominent business, political and academic leaders from the three countries organized and sponsored by the Council on Foreign Relations (U.S.), the Canadian Council of Chief Executives, and the Mexican Council on Foreign Relations.[220]
First contacts started in 1818 with the United Provinces of South America.[226] Due to internal conflicts in each nation, relations between Mexico and Argentina were established de jure until the 1880s when both countries officially accredited their respective representations, upgraded to embassies in 1927.[226] On May 20, 1914, accredited diplomats from Argentina, Brazil and Chile, known as the ABC countries, met in Niagara Falls, Canada, to prevent a war between Mexico and the United States, potentially possible due to measures taken by then-U.S. President Woodrow Wilson concerning the Tampico Affair.[227]
In 2005, during the Fourth Summit of the Americas in Mar de Plata, Argentina, tensions between the two countries started when former President Vicente Fox canceled the anticipatively programmed bilateral reunion with then-PresidentNéstor Kirchner.[229] At the Summit, Fox actively promoted the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) and suggested the exclusion of those who did not agree; Argentina, Brazil and Venezuela argued that the Summit was not meant to discuss the FTAA and rejected the proposition.[229] At the end of the ceremony, Fox expressed that "the most important countries of the Americas (Canada, Mexico and the U.S.) supported the FTAA, and the secondary ones (Cuba, Venezuela and the members of Mercosur) were against it".[229] Later, he criticized Kirchner's interest of "pleasing the Argentine public opinion",[230] who responded that "Fox should only care for the affairs that involve Mexico [...] and good diplomacy was not about bowing down to powerful countries".[230] The respective Ministries of Foreign Affairs redacted a joint communiqué apologizing for the incident and reminded the "importance of the good relations for both countries".[230] In 2007, when Kirchner paid a state visit, he and President Felipe Calderón signed a "Strategic Partnership Agreement" to strengthen bilateral ties.[231]
In recent years, both partners, along with Colombia, Italy, Pakistan, South Korea, Turkey and six other countries, developed a movement called Uniting for Consensus, nicknamed the "Coffee Club", in opposition to the possible expansion of the United Nations Security Council.[232] Argentina and Mexico, specifically, do not support the integration of Brazil as a permanent member of the UNSC.[233]
Mexico and Brazil represent more than half of population, territory and economic development in Latin America, and have the major prestige in the region.[245] Considered as regional powers by analysts,[19][20] relations between the two countries remain good. In the economic area, both are members of the ALADI, the G8+5 and the G-20.[245]
Diplomatic relations between Mexico and Brazil were formally established in the 1820s.[246] During the French Intervention in Mexico, and subsequent Second Mexican Empire, every Latin American country, except Guatemala and the Brazilian Empire, refused to recognize the government of Maximilian I of Mexico.[247] In 1914, an incident occurred in the Port of Tampico[248] that was enough to lead the U.S. to send troops to occupy the Port of Veracruz, which coincided with the provision of military aid by Germany to General Victoriano Huerta.[227] The governments of Argentina, Brazil and Chile, that were given the term ABC countries, supported by then-U.S. PresidentWoodrow Wilson, offered their mediation to solve the dispute peacefully. The ABC countries met in Niagara Falls, Canada to prevent a war between Mexico and the U.S.[227] Legitimate President Venustiano Carranza refused to participate because discussions regarding the ideal form of government that should be established in Mexico took place at the Niagara Falls conferences. Followers of Carranza condemned these actions and refused to accept any foreign aid.[227] Nonetheless, the ABC Pact of 1915 was successfully implemented during the following years. Since the 1970s, relations between Mexico and Brazil have been substantially strengthened.[249]
In October 2006, President-elect Felipe Calderón visited Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, to deepen the dialogue and cooperation between the two countries.[245] The governments of Brazil and Mexico look for maintaining an opened dialogue with several visits to strengthen the bilateral relations and allow a major exchange in areas such as non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, human rights, environment and energy.[245] Thus the Brazil-Mexico Bilateral Commission was released in March 2007 to strengthen their relations.[250] In August 2007, when President "Lula" da Silva paid a state visit, both leaders agreed to coordinate their foreign policies towards Latin America in order to further integrate the region.[251]
In the multilateral scene, Brazil and Mexico's actions are guided by solid principles such as respect for international law, defense of multilateralism, social justice and democratization of international relations. As noted, both countries share views internationally.[245] However, some differences remain, being the most significant the Reform of the United Nations Security Council.[233] Brazil and Mexico, along with India, the People's Republic of China and South Africa, often represent the interests of the developing countries through economic forums such as the G8+5 and the G-20.[252]
Formal relations did not begin until 1944,[257] at the height of the Second World War, which both countries participated in on the Allied side.[258] Prior to the negotiations around the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), economic and political ties between Mexico and Canada were relatively weak. Since NAFTA has come into force, the two countries have become much more important to each other, and often collaborate when dealing with the United States, for example with issues related to the economic embargo imposed to Cuba.[259]
Currently, Mexico and Canada are close friends and strategic partners and benefit from a very active bilateral relationship which includes ever increasing commercial ties, high-level political exchanges and an expanding collaborative network between Mexicans and Canadians in areas such as climate change, culture, energy, education, good governance, human rights and public service modernization. And more recently, both countries have been building a closer security and defense relationship.[257]
In recent years, both partners along with Italy, Argentina, Pakistan and other eight countries have sought a reform of the United Nations Security Council and its working methods[232] Which form a group informally called the Coffee Club, that opposes to the proposition of the G4.[233]
In the early 1820s, Chile and Mexico established diplomatic relations, both countries had interest of integrating the region, however, due to Mexico's economic and political instability the project did not go further.[260] In 1914, due to the Tampico Affair, then-U.S. President Woodrow Wilson ordered the occupation of the Port of Veracruz. Once Wilson realized that his objectives had failed, he appealed to the accredited diplomats of Argentina, Brazil and Chile, known as the ABC countries, to mediate and find a peaceful solution to the international conflict preventing a war between Mexico and the U.S.[227]
Relations were reestablished in 1990 after the Chilean transition to democracy with the election of Patricio Aylwin.[262]A Free Trade Agreement with Chile was signed in April 1998 and went into force on August 1, 1999.[263] Since then, bilateral trade has significantly increased and exceeded the US$3.3 billion mark as of 2006. In addition, Mexico has become Chile's main Latin American investor, accumulating nearly US$870 million.[262] Under the Fox administration, the candidacy of then-Minister of Foreign AffairsLuis Ernesto Derbez for the Secretary General of the Organization of American States was highly promoted. It eventually failed but brought a diplomatic crisis with Chile when Derbez had announced that he would no longer compete against José Miguel Insulza, however, the Mexican delegation abstained despite being previously agreed that it would vote for the Chilean candidate.[264] Bilateral relations were raised to a new level during the state visit of PresidentMichelle Bachelet to Mexico in March 2007, both countries put into effect a "Strategic Partnership Agreement" aimed at bolstering trade, political, diplomatic and cultural relations, as well as ties with civil society. It also creates a fund that will provide US$2 million a year for development projects in Chile, Mexico and third countries.[265]
In 1902, Mexico became the first country to ever recognize and establish relations with the Republic of Cuba once it gained full sovereignty.[272] The cultural ties between the two nations became stronger during the following decades. In the mid-20th century, the Cuban Revolution took place, culminating with the triumph of the July 26 Movement on January 1, 1959. In 1964, when Cuba was expelled from the Organization of American States Mexico did not support this resolution and abstained.[273] Mexico thereafter maintained diplomatic relations with Cuba, which effectively established it as the sole link between Fidel Castro and the rest of the hemisphere because none of the other Latin American governments recognized Cuba's revolutionary regime until after 1970.[273] Since then, Mexico constantly supported Cuba in international organizations and multilateral forums, and strongly opposed to the economic embargo imposed to the Caribbean island in the early 1960s.[274]
Relations remained strong and stable until 1998 when Fidel Castro, declared that Mexican children were more knowledgeable on Disney characters than on key figures in Mexican history, such declarations led Mexico to recall its ambassador from Havana. He later apologized and said that his words were meant to underscore the cultural dominance of the U.S.[275] On November 16, 1999, then Mexican President Ernesto Zedillo highly criticized the lack of democracy and political freedom in Cuba during his official visit to the Caribbean island.[276] Relations worsened when then President Vicente Fox, from the National Action Party, redirected the country's Castañeda Doctrine on foreign policy. In April 2002, the UN Human Rights Commission again criticized Cuba's rights record, the resolution was sponsored by Uruguay and supported by many of countries traditionally friendly towards Cuba, such as Mexico, that historically had abstained.[277] The same month, Fox apologized to Fidel Castro over allegations by Castro that Fox forced him at the last minute to leave the United Nations International Conference on Financing for Development in Monterrey, Mexico, in order to favor the presence of former U.S. President George W. Bush, who also attended and likely requested Castro's removal. Castro, Cuba, and even many Mexicans saw this as an insult, and relations between the two countries reached their lowest point.[278]
Under the Calderón administration, Mexico concentrated on rebuilding diplomatic relations with Havana.[26] On December 15–17, 2008, in the framework of the "First Latin American and Caribbean Summit for Integration and Development", President Calderón introduced Cuba to the regional organization Rio Group and held talks with President Raúl Castro about topics of interests for both countries. They both agreed to schedule mutual visits for 2009,[279] and put emphasis on strengthening the friendship, cooperation, integration, trade and support. Both countries share the vision of a permanent fight against poverty and organized crime.
With seven months before the six-year term of Felipe Calderón came to an end, he made plans to visit Cuba to "patch up the bruise" and discuss possible business relations, which included oil deals.[280]
In April 2012, President Felipe Calderón traveled to Cuba and met with Raúl Castro to fix the broken relationship between the two countries. During his time in Cuba, Calderón condemned the 50-year-old U.S. trade embargo against Cuba.[281]
Mexico and Peru have historically had a unique relationship solidly based on that they share two of the most significant ancient cultures in the Americas. Both countries have expressed solidarity over the need to defend the recovery of cultural and archaeological heritage in the form of artifacts that have been illegally stolen from Peru and Mexico and which are to this date, illegally or legitimately kept in foreign locations. Peru's President Alan García and Mexico's Felipe Calderón signed a joint declaration in April 2011 aimed at deepening the two countries' friendship, cooperation, integration, trade, investments and the permanent fight against poverty and organized crime. The two countries aim to achieve a new model of integration within Latin America, and to represent a positive, realistic, and active example of integration amongst two "brotherly" nations.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.
Mexico is accredited to Saint Vincent and the Grenadines from its embassy in Castries, Saint Lucia and maintains an honorary consulate in Kingstown.[225]
The Mexican–American War was a conflict that sparked when the U.S. annexed Texas in 1845 and the Mexican government refused to recognize the secession of Texas which was the precursor to the annexation.[313] The war, which began in 1846 and lasted for two years, was settled via the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo which led to Mexico giving up even more of its land to the U.S., including California.[314] Mexico further transferred some of its territories (southern Arizona and New Mexico) to the U.S. via the Gadsden Purchase in 1854.[315]
In the Reform War, that lasted from 1858 to 1861, the liberals led by Benito Juárez, were given the U.S. recognition as the legitimate government in Mexico.[316] Meanwhile, the conservatives, headed by Comonfort, Zuloaga and Miramón, brought a European Emperor to govern the country, Maximilian I, which led to the French Intervention in 1862,[317] violating the Monroe Doctrine, there was nothing the U.S. could do, as it was involved in its own civil war.[318] Affecting Mexico's foreign policy, both sides, the Union and the Confederacy, were looking for international recognition as well. The Juárez administration was ideologically closer to the Union, but geographically Mexico shared a large border with the Confederacy.[318] In 1861, the then-U.S. President Abraham Lincoln named Thomas Corwin as his minister for Mexico and instructed him to neutralize the Mexican aid given to the Confederates; he successfully achieved this mission.[318] Once the civil war ended, then-Secretary of State William Seward declared that the French invasion in Mexico was harmful to the friendship between France and the U.S., and Washington provided financial aid to Benito Juárez, who successfully expelled the French in 1867.[318]
Lasting for seven years, the 1910 Mexican Revolution ended the rule of the dictator-president Porfirio Díaz. The war was sparked when the U.S.-supported Díaz was proclaimed the winner of the 1910 elections despite mass popular support for his rival in the election Francisco I. Madero.[319] After the war, the various groups that made up the revolutionary forces splintered as they lost the unifying goal of unseating Díaz —leading to a civil war.[320] The U.S. intervened in the conflict, including the involvement of the U.S. ambassador, Henry Lane Wilson, in the plotting of the 1913 coup d'état which overthrew Madero.[321]
First ladies Paloma Cordero of Mexico (left) and Nancy Reagan of the United States (right) with U.S. Ambassador to Mexico, John Gavin observing the damage done by the earthquake.
The 1917 Constitution of Mexico caused several problems with the British and American transnational oil companies mainly derived from the article 27, which declares that "the wealth contained in the soil, the subsoil, the waters and seas of Mexico belongs to the Nation; the right to land ownership and to exploit the subsoil may therefore only be granted by the Nation."[322] Due to foreign pressure, the implementation of the article was continuously ignored by the government until March 18, 1938, when then-President Lázaro Cárdenasnationalized the oil industry.[323]PEMEX replaced the 17 Anglo-American companies, however, the country faced hard retaliations from the transnational oil companies, as well as an international boycott that could be overcome ten years later.[324]
During the Cold War, demonstrating independence from the United States, Mexico supported the Cuban government during the 1960s,[6] the Sandinista revolution in Nicaragua during the late 1970s,[7] and leftist revolutionary groups in El Salvador during the 1980s.[8]
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) went into effect on January 1, 1994, which led to the elimination of tariffs and other trade barriers between Mexico and the U.S. and serves as a multilateral platform for cooperation between both countries.[325] The agreement increased trade volume and cooperation in both countries.[326] The free trade agreement has been increasingly opposed by Mexican and U.S. farmers, with many groups and the political left presenting that it hurts the interest of traditional, small and local farmers in both countries.[327] Allegations of violations of labor and environmental laws have been considered by the trilateral institutions.[328] The Bush Administration argued that NAFTA had had modest positive impacts on all three member countries, but Mexican farmers have strongly criticized the effects of the agreement as they have become overshadowed by the large corporations benefiting from NAFTA.[329] Notable bilateral trade disputes relate to trucking, tuna, sweeteners and anti-dumping measures.[330] Currently, the United States is the number one destination for Mexican exports. The U.S. also exports more goods into Mexico than any other country in the world.
Historically the two countries have had good diplomatic relations. Ever since both countries became important players in the oil industry, some competitive tensions arose, eventually leading to disputes after Mexico signed an agreement to join NAFTA. During President Vicente Fox's term, relations between the two countries became critically strained to the point of recalling one another's ambassadors. It has been clear that diplomatic ties between both countries are not indefinitely severed, in recent years numerous groups, both in Mexico and Venezuela are working to restore the diplomatic relationship between the two countries, as they are of strategic economic and cultural importance. In August 2007, after two years of diplomatic absence in either country, normal relations were re-established with the appointment of former foreign minister Roy Chaderton as Venezuela's envoy in Mexico City and the transfer of Jesús Mario Chacón Carrillo, formerly Mexican ambassador to Colombia, to Caracas. Both countries are founding members of the Latin American Integration Association.
Mexico and the People's Republic of China established relations amidst tensions in 1972, and in recent years have seen an intense export rivalry over the United States market, with the Mexican government having accused the Chinese of impinging on its export territory by flooding the US with cheap goods manufactured in low-wage factories.
In 2005, Chinese President Hu Jintao came to Mexico promising increased investment in industries like automobile-parts manufacture and mineral exportation. In July 2008, Mexican PresidentFelipe Calderón reciprocated with a visit to Beijing in a bid to improve bilateral trade. Nevertheless, China has focussed more on South American commodity producers such as Brazil and Chile to meet this end and fuel its chiefly-export economy.
China has an embassy in Mexico City[357] and a consulate-general in Tijuana.[358]
Under the Fox administration, several visits and bilateral meetings occurred concerning diverse areas such as economy, technology and culture. In April 2004, the "Group of Friendship Mexico-India" was established at the LIX Legislature. To promote a major rapprochement with India, then-Secretary of Foreign AffairsLuis Ernesto Derbez met with his Indian counterpart in mid-2004 in Washington, D.C., and officially visited New Delhi in August, where both ministers agreed to celebrate the IV Binational Commission, formerly suspended in 1996, with the aim of strengthening the bilateral agenda. In May 2007, India and Mexico signed the "Bilateral Investment Protection Agreement" (BIPA) to strengthen their trading relations, with proximity to the U.S., the joint ventures would enable Indian companies to increase their presence in the world's biggest market, taking advantage of Mexico's membership in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
Relationship with India was tightened by visit of Indian prime minister Narendra Modi in 2016 June. This visit was visit of Indian prime minister after a long time of 30 years. This time Mexico also supported India to join Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).
The first diplomatic relations between Mexico and Persia (modern-day Iran) date back to 1889, although cooperation and trade between the two friend nations was not formally established until 1937.[369]
Mexico and Iran have enjoyed increasingly close political and economic relations over the years, growing with the volume of bilateral trade and economic cooperation. The two countries aim to expand cooperation in several sectors, sharing science and technology, particularly in the oil industry. Both countries have also shared successful experiences in cultural cooperation and exchange. In 2008, an agreement to form a Mexico-Iran parliamentary friendship group was made at the Mexican parliament.
The Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation concluded in 1888 between the two countries was Japan's first "equal" treaty with a foreign country.[375] In 1897, the 35 members of the so-called Enomoto Colonization Party settle in the Mexican state of Chiapas to grow coffee, this was the first organized emigration from Japan to Latin America.[375]
Former Mexican President Álvaro Obregón was awarded Japan's Order of the Chrysanthemum at a special ceremony in Mexico City. On November 27, 1924, Baron Shigetsuma Furuya, Special Ambassador from Japan to Mexico, conferred the honor on Obregón. It was reported that this had been the first time that the Order had been conferred outside the Imperial family.[376] In 1952, Mexico becomes the second country to ratify the San Francisco Peace Treaty, preceded only by the United Kingdom.[375]
On September 17, 2004, Mexico and Japan signed a free trade agreement, formally known as the "Agreement Between Japan and the United Mexican States for the Strengthening of the Economic Partnership", which went into effect in April 2005.[377] This was one among many historic steps led by Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi to strengthen global economic stability. As a result, in 2007 Mexico became Japan's largest trading partner in Latin America.[377] Over sixty treaties and agreements have been signed between the two countries, standing out the ones related to technological and scientific cooperation, several academic and cultural exchanges, as well as an increasing inter-parliamentary dialogue.[375][378]
Mexico currently enjoys very good social and economic relations with Japan and is major center of Japanese investment. Japan has invested heavily in the Mexican industrial, automotive, technology and manufacturing sectors.[379][380][381][382][383][384][385][386][387][388] As of 2012, it was estimated that Japanese companies employed over one million workers in Mexico just in the automotive and technology manufacturing industries.
Japan has an embassy in Mexico City and a consulate-general in León.[389]
Mexico was among the first nations to recognize Lebanon's independence in 1943.
Mexico was a popular destination during the Lebanese diaspora. There is a significant population of Lebanese descent in Mexico, nearing half a million people, many of which travel to and support business with Lebanon.
The Centro Libanés and "Club Deportivo Libanés" in Mexico City are important symbols representing the historically cultural and social ties between both countries.
Mexico and the Philippines share a myriad of traditions and customs derived from historical ties established over 450 years ago. Their common history dates back to the time when both countries were part of New Spain. Mexican money financed the expedition known as Legazpi exploration, under the command of King Philip II of Spain. During the Mexican administration of the Philippines, other than General Legazpi, all of the governor-generals were born in Mexico. Due to the grand exchange with the Philippines in those days, many cultural traits were adopted by one another, with Mexicans remaining in the Philippines, and Filipinos establishing in Mexico, particularly the central west coast, near the port town of Acapulco. Many Nahuatl words were adopted and popularized in the Philippines, such as Tianggui (market fair) and Zapote (a fruit).
After the colonial period, the first official contacts of Mexico with the Philippines were established in 1842, when a Mexican Representation was opened in Manila. With the assignment of Mexican Diplomat Evaristo Butler Hernandez in the Philippines in 1878.
The Independence of the Philippines brought forth a new era of relations between these countries. Mexico dispatched an envoy to participate in the festivities to celebrate the birth of the Southeast Asian nation. Diplomatic ties between both countries were formalized on April 14, 1953. The year of 1964 was decreed the "Year of Philippine-Mexican Friendship" to celebrate the Fourth Centennial of the Expedition of Miguel López de Legazpi. In modern day, the conquest of the Philippines is seen as a Spanish initiative, while Mexico is viewed as a country of historical link and friendship, and several groups intend on strengthening the bond between the two countries.[418]
Mexico has a liaison office in Taipei known as the "Mexican Trade Services, Documentation and Cultural Office".[428]
Taiwan has a liaison office in Mexico City known as the "Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Mexico" (Oficina Económica y Cultural de Taipei en México).[429]
Mexico is accredited to Yemen from its embassy in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and maintains an honorary consulate in Sana'a.[348]
Yemen is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.[440]
Europe
Mexico was the first Latin American country to sign a partnership agreement with the European Union (EU), in 1997, composed by 15 members at the time.[263] The agreement entered into force in July 2000 and has considerably strengthened bilateral relations between the two partners. It governs all relations between them, including a regular high-level political dialogue, and shared values such as democracy and human rights.
Mexico recognized and established diplomatic relations with Albania on October 15, 1974. Shortly thereafter Mexico opened a resident embassy in Tirana, however the embassy was closed in 1979.[441]
Albania is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., USA.
Mexico is accredited to Albania from its embassy in Rome, Italy [442] and has an honorary consulate in Tirana.[443]
In 1938, Mexico became the only country to protest against the anschluss of Austria at the League of Nations.[446] During World War II, Austria was part of the German Reich and in May 1942 Mexico declared war on Germany after the destruction of two Mexican oil tankers in the Gulf of Mexico by German U-boats.[447] After the war, normal relations were restored between the two nations.
As of 2005, Mexico was Austria's second most important trade partner in Latin America.[448] The same year, the President of AustriaHeinz Fischer visited Mexico and Brazil, the first ever state visit of an Austrian President to countries in Latin America.[449]
In 1836, Belgium—itself newly independent—recognized the independence of Mexico. In 1919, the Belgian chamber of commerce of Mexico was established. Belgium opened its embassy in Mexico on June 5, 1954.[457]
Denmark is Mexico's largest investor and trade partner among the Nordic countries. Diplomatic relations began in 1827 with a Treaty of Friendship, Trade and Navigation.[469]
The independence of Mexico was recognized de jure by France until 1830.[476] The first official contacts concerned trading, in 1827 an agreement signed in Paris established that both countries and its citizens would enjoy a privileged position reciprocally, which included complaints and demands related to the damages suffered during the war from French citizens living in Mexico, the Mexican Congress refused to ratify it.[476] then-French Foreign MinisterLouis-Mathieu Molé sent an ultimatum urging the Mexican government to pay off its debts, due to economic instability, refused to do so.[477] In 1838, a French pastry cook, Monsieur Remontel, claimed his shop in the Tacubaya district of Mexico City had been ruined by looting Mexican officers in 1828, he appealed to French KingLouis-Philippe. Coming to its citizen's aid, France demanded MXN$600,000 in damages.[478] When the payment was not forthcoming from then-President Anastasio Bustamante, Louis-Philippe sent a fleet to declare a blockade of all Mexican ports from Yucatán Peninsula to the Rio Grande, and to seize the Port of Veracruz, which led to an armed conflict known as the Pastry War.[478] British diplomat Richard Pakenham offered his mediation, after several negotiations, Mexico was eventually forced to pay the initially demanded MXN$600,000 and burdensome compensations.[313]
In 1861, the liberals won the War of Reform, however, it left the treasury depleted. Trade was stagnant, and foreign creditors were demanding full repayment of Mexican debts, Juárez proceeded to declare a moratorium on all foreign debt repayments.[317]France, Great Britain and Spain decided to launch a joint occupation of the Mexican Gulf coast to force repayment.[317] The Spanish and British quickly figured out that Juárez fully intended to pay the debts when he could, so they withdrew. They also realized that the French had other intentions, indicated by the arrival of reinforcements, and had no desire to help France achieve its ambitions, which led to a military intervention, encouraged by the defeated conservatives.[317] When the French entered Mexico City in mid-1863, the conservatives quickly invited Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian of Austria to accept the Mexican crown, who agreed believing that this act responded to the desire of a majority of Mexicans.[479] However, once the conservatives understood Maximilian's democratic sentiments and anticlerical attitudes, began withdrawing their support.[480] When the American Civil War ended, the U.S. made its Monroe Doctrine valid and intervened by providing military and financial aid to Juárez.[481] Meanwhile, in Europe, France was increasingly threatened by a belligerent Prussia and, by 1866, Napoleon III began recalling his troops stationed in Mexico.[318] Conservative forces switched sides and began supporting the Mexican liberals. United resumed their campaign on February 19, 1867, and on May 15, Maximilian surrendered. He was tried and, on Juárez's orders, was executed on June 19.[318] After an exhaustive process, diplomatic relations were reestablished in 1880, leaving behind claims related to the war.[482]
Both nations had an international dispute over the island of Clipperton, which had been under Mexican occupation, but claimed by the Foreign Ministry of France.[483] In 1931 both nations agreed to abide to the arbitration of King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, who declared it a French territory.
When the Fourth Republic collapsed in 1958, Mexico was the first country that recognized the Fifth Republic founded by General Charles de Gaulle.[484] In subsequent years, both countries coordinated actions and released a communiqué that supported the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) during the Salvadoran Civil War.[485] Recently, PresidentNicolas Sarkozy paid a state visit in March 2009, however, controversy over the Florence Cassez case, a Frenchwoman convicted of kidnapping in Mexico sentenced to 60 years in jail, overshadowed the bilateral agenda.[486] Backed by the "Convention on the Transfer of Sentenced Persons", Sarkozy persuaded the Mexican government to allow Cassez to serve out her sentence in France, however, public opinion in Mexico strongly opposes under the suspicion that once home, she would quickly be released from jail.[487] A bilateral commission was established to handle the case.[487] Meanwhile, speaking at the National Palace in Mexico City, Sarkozy praised Calderón for Mexico's "courageous and determined" battle against drug cartels[486] and urged the Congress to reform the Constitution in order to allow the Mexican military to collaborate with the United Nations in peacekeeping missions.[488] Supported by British Prime MinisterGordon Brown, Sarkozy has previously expressed that the G8 would benefit from a permanent enlargement that includes the +5 countries.[489]
France has an embassy in Mexico City and a consulate-general in Monterrey.[490]
Alexander von Humboldt's reports on his trip to then-New Spain back in the early 19th century heralded the start of Germany's interest in Mexico.[493] Commercial links were quickly established through the signing of the "Treaty of Commerce and Navigation" between Mexico and Hamburg in 1823. Due to increasing investment, six years later, Prussia sent Carl Koppe as its first general consul and first representative in the newborn nation. During the administration of dictator Porfirio Díaz, commercial ties significantly strengthened.[493]
In January 1917, Britain's secret Royal Navy cryptanalytic group, Room 40, intercepted a proposal from Berlin, the Zimmermann Telegram, to Mexico to join the Great War as Germany's ally against the United States, should the U.S. join. The proposal suggested, if the U.S. were to enter the war, Mexico should declare war against the U.S. and enlist Japan as an ally. This would prevent the U.S. from joining the Allies and deploying troops to Europe, and would give Germany more time for their unrestricted submarine warfare program to strangle Britain's vital war supplies. In return, the Germans would promise Mexico support in reclaiming Texas, New Mexico and Arizona.[494] When the U.S. entered the war on April 2, 1917, eleven days later then-President Venustiano Carranza not only turned down the proposition but also declared neutrality.[495]
Nearly 25,000 Mennonites of German ancestry immigrated from Canada to Mexico and settled in the states of Chihuahua and Durango in 1922, their agricultural centers still contribute to the economy of the region.[496] After the establishment of Nazi Germany, Mexico received hundreds of asylum seekers, standing out important figures such as Egon Erwin Kisch, Anna Seghers and Paul Westheim.[496] During the Second World War, the Axis Powers sank two Mexican oil tankers such as Faja de Oro and Potrero de Llano, despite Mexico's neutrality. This attacks were enough to make Mexico enter the world conflict.[497] In 1952, diplomatic relations between the two countries were officially reestablished.[496]
In 1964, the foundation of Volkswagen in Puebla, Mexico, best represents the foreign investment from Germany; specifically, the Volkswagen Beetle, informally called "vocho", is commonly seen as a symbol of Germany in the country.[496] In contemporary times, Germany is viewed as a privileged partner in Europe, from whom economic, political and cultural engagement in Mexico is expected. Bilateral relations are being intensified in all areas based on a "Joint Declaration" between the two countries' Foreign Ministries signed in April 2007.[498] Economic ties have been strengthened since the European Union-Mexico Free Trade Agreement went into force in July 2000, Germany has become Mexico's fourth-largest trading partner.[499]
In 1904 the Holy See assigned an Apostolic Delegate to Mexico. Diplomatic relations were restored in 1992, giving the office of the Apostolic Delegate in Mexico City the status of a nunciature. As of 2012 about 78% of Mexico's population declared themselves Roman Catholics.
Holy See has an Apostolic Nunciature in Mexico City.[505]
Mexico has a resident embassy to the Holy See in Rome.[506]
Diplomatic relations between Hungary and Mexico were suspended between 1941 and 1974 and re-established on May 14, 1974. The Mexican embassy in Budapest was opened on September 30, 1976.
The first contact between Italy and Mexico was in 1869, just before the end of Italian unification in 1870; when Italy expressed its desire to open a consulate in Mexico. A consulate was opened in Mexico in December 1872, however, diplomatic relations between the two nations were not established until December 15, 1874.[512]
During World War I, Mexico remained neutral because it was involved in its own revolution during the same time. In the 1930s, diplomatic relations between the two nations began to deteriorate when Prime Minister Benito Mussolini invaded and annexed Abyssinia (now Ethiopia) during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War in 1935–1936. Mexico was one of the few countries to vehemently oppose the occupation of Abyssinia by Italian forces.[513] On May 22, 1942, Mexico declared war on the axis powers due to German u-boat attacks on two Mexican oil tankers in the Gulf of Mexico that same year. Diplomatic relations were re-established on June 1, 1946.[512]
In 1997, Mexico signed a Free Trade Agreement with the European Union (which includes Italy). Trade between the two nations totaled just over six billion USD in 2011. Among the products that Mexico exports to Italy are: automobiles and petroleum based products. Italy exports mainly steel products to Mexico. Today, Italy is Mexico's ninth biggest trading partner in the world (third in Europe after Germany and Spain). Mexico is Italy's second biggest trading partner in Latin-America (after Brazil).[514]
Lithuania and Mexico initially established diplomatic relations on May 31, 1938, and signed a Treaty of Friendship in Washington, D.C., United States. Mexico never recognized the annexation of Lithuania by the Soviet Union and condemned the action. On November 5, 1991, Mexico recognized and re-established diplomatic relations with Lithuania. In 2002, President Valdas Adamkus paid a visit to Mexico and met with Mexican President Vicente Fox. In 2008, President Adamkus returned to Mexico for a visit and met with Mexican President Felipe Calderón.[520]
Lithuania is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States, and maintains an honorary consulate in Mexico City.[521]
Mexico is accredited to Lithuania from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden and maintains an honorary consulate in Vilnius.[518]
Diplomatic relations between Luxembourg and Mexico were established in 1947. In 1980, Prime Minister Pierre Werner paid an official visit to Mexico. In March 1996, Grand Duke Jean paid a visit to Mexico. During the Grand Duke's visit, both nations signed an Air Transportation Agreement. In April 2019, Prime Minister Xavier Bettel paid an official visit to Mexico and met with President Andrés Manuel López Obrador.[522][523]
Luxembourg is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States and maintains an honorary consulate in Mérida.[524]
Mexico is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium and maintains an honorary consulate in Luxembourg City.[459]
See Mexico–Netherlands relationsOfficial visit of Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto to the Netherlands; 2018.
On September 27, 1993, the Netherlands Ministry of Finance announced The Netherlands – Mexico Tax Treaty and Protocol. The regulations detail the formalities residents of the Netherlands must observe "in order to be exempt from, or obtain a refund of, the Mexican withholding taxes on dividends, interest and royalties."[528] In 2008 Mexico and the Netherlands modified their existing tax treaty, initially signed in 1993 to strength cooperation to curb tax evasion.[529][530]
See Mexico–Portugal relationsMexican President Enrique Peña Nieto on a state visit to Portugal meeting with Portuguese President Aníbal Cavaco Silva; 2014.
Diplomatic relations between both countries were established in 1890. In 2010 the 120th anniversary of the ties of friendship between the peoples of Russia and Mexico were celebrated.
Mexico was the first country in the Americas to establish relations with the then Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Soviet politician and leader Leon Trotsky moved to Mexico from Norway during his exile. Mexican President Lázaro Cárdenas welcomed him warmly, arranging a special train to bring him to Mexico City from the port of Tampico. In Mexico, Trotsky at one point lived at the home of the painter Diego Rivera, and at another at that of Rivera's wife & fellow painter, Frida Kahlo with whom he had an affair.[542]
Due to its good relations with Russia, Mexico has often purchased military equipment from Russia. The Mexican Navy has received BTR-60's Ural-4320, Mi-17/8's, and anti-aircraft missiles SA-18 Grouse. Much of this equipment remains in service.
Mexico was the first Latin American country to recognize Slovenia after gaining independence on May 22, 1992. Mexican parliament members have praised Slovenia's participation in the eight-country initiative (which includes Mexico) for a world without nuclear weapons and its achievements in the human rights area. Since 1999 both countries have abolished visas as an example of strengthening relations.
Mexico is accredited to Slovenia from its embassy in Vienna, Austria.[451]
Slovenia is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.[545]
The first decades of Mexico's post-independence period were characterized by economic instability. On July 17, 1861, then-President Benito Juárez's suspension of interest payments to foreign countries angered Mexico's major creditors: Spain, France and Great Britain.[317]Napoleon III was the leader of this operation, and the three powers signed the Treaty of London on October 31 to unite their efforts to receive payments from Mexico. On December 8 the Spanish fleet and troops from Spanish-controlled Cuba arrived at Mexico's main Gulf port, Veracruz. Spain along Great Britain soon withdrew after the signing of the "Treaty of La Soledad", France did not agree with the terms and immediately invaded Mexico.[317]
Since their re-establishment on March 28, 1977, have been strengthened within a modern, legal and institutional framework to promote politic dialogue and cooperation. In January 1990, the "General Treaty of Cooperation and Friendship" was signed to establish a Bilateral Commission.[552] In 2007, President Calderón and Spanish PresidentJosé Luis Rodríguez Zapatero paid state visits reciprocally[552] and signed a declaration to deepen the strategic association between the two countries.[553] After the European Union-Mexico Free Trade Agreement went into force in July 2000, Spain became Mexico's seventh trading partner and second amongst the European Union members.[554]
Due to rivalry with France and Spain, then-Prime Minister George Canning was interested in recognizing the independence of the newborn nations in the Americas. On June 27, 1824, Canning received Mexican plenipotentiary minister José Mariano Michelena and recognized Mexico as an independent country de facto, and formally on December 30, despite opposition from the British cabinet.[563]United Kingdom was the first country to officially recognize the independence of Mexico.[564]
In subsequent decades, the United Kingdom would persuade other European countries to recognize Mexico, especially Spain, and offer mediation in different international conflicts that involved Mexico in the 19th century such as the Pastry War[313] and the Texas War of Independence.[565] By 1861, Mexico was a country deeply in debt and torn by divisions of the power of the Roman Catholic Church. Mexico's creditors demanded repayment, forcing then-President Benito Juárez to declare a two-year moratorium on foreign debt, which in turn led to a punitive expedition sent by Britain, France and Spain. Juarez successfully negotiated the "Treaty of La Soledad" with the British and Spanish, who soon withdrew.[317] After the Mexican Congress ratified a commercial agreement with the U.S. in 1883, Great Britain showed more interest in reestablish diplomatic relations with Mexico, and quickly did so a couple of years later.[566] Sovereignty over the territory of Belize was historically claimed by Mexico, but the British crown refused to discuss this issue for a long time; however, in 1897, the signing of the "Mariscal-Spencer Treaty" resolved the territorial disputes with the British crown colony.[567]
In 1917, Mexico's newly promulgated Constitution provided, among other things, restrictions on foreign ownership of land and subsoil resources, notably oil.[568] This last provision, included in Article 27, was ominous for American and British investors who had obtained oil-mining concessions.[569] Due to heavy foreign pressure, subsequent governments did not strictly applicate the article, until Lázaro Cárdenas, who on March 18, 1938, fully nationalized the oil-industry. This measure led to protests by the British government questioning the nationalization and Mexico's solvency to execute it. In response, a check, in an amount worth of the demands for nationalization, was sent and diplomatic ties were broken off.[570]PEMEX replaced the 17 Anglo-American companies, however, the country faced hard retaliations from the transnational oil companies, and an international boycott that could be overcome ten years later.[569]
Decades later, several state visits would be reciprocally paid, notably Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom in 1975.[571] On March 31 – April 1, 2009, President Felipe Calderón officially visited the UK to discuss issues related to modernization of the national oil industry, climate change and strategic cooperation with Prime Minister Gordon Brown, as well as coordinating actions for the G-20 London Summit.[572]
Mexico is the tenth largest contributor to the United Nations (UN) regular budgets.[16] Currently, it is a member of eighteen organizations arisen from the General Assembly, Economic and Social Council and other specialized organizations of the UN.[585]
Mexico has served as a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) three times (1946, 1982–83, 2002–03). On October 17, 2008, picking up 185 votes, it was elected to serve as a non-permanent member for the fourth time, from January 1, 2009, to December 31, 2010.[586] Since April 1, Mexico holds the rotative presidency of the UNSC.[587]
In recent years, the need of reforming the UNSC and its working methods has been widely impulsed by Mexico,[232] with the support of Canada, Italy, Pakistan and other nine countries.[233] And have formed a movement informally called the Coffee Club, created in the 1990s, which highly opposes to the reform that the Group of Four (G4) suggests.[588]
In 1964, under U.S. pressure, the OAS required all member countries to break off diplomatic ties with Cuba. Mexico refused, condemned the Bay of Pigs invasion, and did not support the expulsion of Cuba from the OAS.[591] Years later, Mexico strongly opposed to the creation of a military alliance within the OAS framework, and condemned the U.S. invasion of Panama in 1989.[592]
The megadiverse countries are a group of countries that harbor the majority of the Earth's species and are considered extremely biodiverse and therefore are of utmost priority on the global environmental agenda. Conservation International identified 17 megadiverse countries[593] in 1998,[594][595] most are located in or have territories in the tropics.
In 2002, Mexico formed a separate organization named Like-Minded Megadiverse Countries, consisting of countries rich in biological diversity and associated traditional knowledge.[596] This organization includes a different set of involved megadiverse countries than those identified by Conservation International.
2005: Agreement for the Strengthening of the Economic Partnership with Japan.[599]
2011: Unifying Free Trade Agreement with Central America (unified existing treaties with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and the Northern Triangle countries).[600]
2020: Trade Continuity Agreement with the United Kingdom.2
1:The Bolivian government denounced the Mexico-Bolivia Free Trade Agreement's provisions on investments, services, intellectual property, and government purchases as incompatible with its 2009 constitution on June 7, 2010. In order to maintain free movement of goods between Mexico and Bolivia, the governments of the two countries agreed to replace the free trade agreement with an Economic Complementation Agreement effective on the same date.[598][601][602]
2: The United Kingdom left the European Union on January 31, 2020. Under the terms of the Brexit withdrawal agreement, trade relations between Mexico and the UK continued to be bound by the terms of the Mexico-EU trade agreement for the duration of the UK's withdrawal transition period. On December 15, 2020, in preparation for the UK's final EU withdrawal on December 31, the UK and Mexico signed a temporary Trade Continuity Agreement in order to maintain free trade between the two countries.[603][604] Negotiations between Mexico and the UK for a new free trade agreement to replace the existing continuity agreement began in July 2022.[605]
Mexico remains a transit and not a cocaine production country.[608]Methamphetamine and cannabis production do take place in Mexico and are responsible for an estimated 80% of the methamphetamine on the streets in the United States,[609] while 1,100 metric tons of marijuana are smuggled each year from Mexico.[610]
In 1990 just over half the cocaine imported into the U.S. came through Mexico, by 2007 that had risen to more than 90 percent, according to U.S. State Department estimates.[611] Although violence between drug cartels has been occurring long before the war began, the government used its police forces in the 1990s and early first decade of the 21st century with little effect. That changed on December 11, 2006, when newly elected PresidentFelipe Calderón sent 6,500 federal troops to the state of Michoacán to put an end to drug violence there. This action is regarded as the first major retaliation made against cartel operations, and is generally viewed as the starting point of the war between the government and the drug cartels.[612] As time progressed, Calderón continued to escalate his anti-drug campaign, in which there are now well over 25,000 troops involved.[613] It is estimated that during 2006, there were about 2,000 drug-related violent deaths,[614] about 2,300 deaths during 2007,[615] and more than 6,200 people by the end of 2008.[616] Many of the dead were gang members killed by rivals or by the government, some have been bystanders.
Our insatiable demand for illegal drugs fuels the drug trade. Our inability to prevent weapons from being illegally smuggled across the border to arm these criminals causes the deaths of police officers, soldiers and civilians.
Almost a third of all immigrants in the U.S. were born in Mexico, being the source of the greatest number of both authorized (20%) and unauthorized (56%) migrants who come to the U.S. every year.[618] Since the early 1990s, Mexican immigrants are no longer concentrated in California, the Southwest, and Illinois, but have been coming to new gateway states, including New York, North Carolina, Georgia, Nevada, and Washington, D.C., in increasing numbers.[618] This phenomenon can be mainly attributed to poverty in Mexico, the growing demand for unskilled labor in the U.S., the existence of established family and community networks that allow migrants to arrive in the U.S. with people known to them.[618]
The framework of U.S. immigration law has largely remained the same since 1965. The U.S. economy needs both high-skilled and low-skilled immigrant workers to remain competitive and to have enough workers who continue to pay into Social Security and Medicare as the U.S. population grows older. Nonetheless, there are currently very few channels for immigration to the U.S. for work-related reasons under current law.[619] Furthermore, Amnesty International has taken concern regarding the excessive brutality inflicted upon illegal immigrants, which includes beatings, sexual assault, denial of medical attention, and denial of food, water and warmth for long periods.[620]
Traditionally, Mexico built a reputation as one of the classic asylum countries, with a varying attitude toward refugees from Spain and other European countries before and during World War II, from Latin America's Southern Cone in the 1970s, and from Central America since the beginning of the 1980s.[623] However, in recent years refugees who solicit asylum are usually treated as if they were just immigrants, with exhaustive administrative processes.[623] The southern border of Mexico has experienced a significant increase in legal and illegal flows over the past decade, in particular for migrants seeking to transit Mexico to reach the U.S.[624]José Luis Soberanes, president of the National Human Rights Commission, condemned the repressing policy implemented by the Mexican government against illegal immigrants who cross the country's southern border.[625]PresidentCalderón modified the "General Law on Population" to derogate some penalties against immigrants like jail time, instead imposing fines of up to US$500 on illegal immigrants.[626]
^ abcdPolitical Constitution of the United Mexican States (February 5, 1917). "Article 89, Section 10"(PDF) (in Spanish). Chamber of Deputies. Archived from the original(PDF) on September 16, 2008. Retrieved March 28, 2009.
^ abInternal Rules of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (August 10, 2001). "Article 2, Section 1" (in Spanish). Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved March 28, 2009.
^Paweł Bożyk (2006). "Newly Industrialized Countries". Globalization and the Transformation of Foreign Economic Policy. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 164. ISBN0-7546-4638-6.
^Mauro F. Guillén (2003). "Multinationals, Ideology, and Organized Labor". The Limits of Convergence. Princeton University Press. pp. 126 (Table 5.1). ISBN0-691-11633-4.
^Egbert, Lawrence Deems; Cooper, Donald H. (1941). Manual de referencia de tratados comerciales latinoamericanos (in Spanish). United States Tariff Commission. p. 214.
^Estrada, Genaro. Archivo Histórico Genaro Estrada: guía temática (in Spanish). Vol. 1. p. 170.
^Libro amarillo correspondiente al año ...: presentado al Congreso Nacional en sus sesiones ordinarias de ... por el titular despacho (in Spanish). Venezuela. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores. 2003. pp. 528–529.
^Informe de labores - Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores. Mexico. Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores. 1973. p. 27.
^ abcdefghijklmnopqrInforme de labores. Mexico. Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores. 1975. p. 39.
^ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahInforme de labores - Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores (in Spanish). Mexico. Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores. 1976. pp. 26 and 36–37.
^ abInforme de labores - Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores (in Spanish). Mexico. Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores. 1979. p. 17.
^Comparecencia del Secretario de Relaciones Exteriores, Lic. Fernando Solana Morales ante el Senado de la República Mexicana, diciembre 4 de 1990 (in Spanish). Senado de la República, LIV Legislatura. 1990. p. 38.
^Consejo Mexicano de Asuntos Internacionales. "Organizaciones Afiliadas" (in Spanish). Official website. Archived from the original on March 3, 2009. Retrieved April 9, 2009.
^ abcdef"Inicio". embamex.sre.gob.mx. Retrieved June 20, 2023.
^ abcMinistry of Foreign Affairs. "Bilateral relations". Mexican Embassy in Argentina. Archived from the original on July 17, 2011. Retrieved April 16, 2009.
^"Inicio". Embamex.sre.gob.mx. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
^ abcdeBrazilian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. "Bilateral relations" (in Spanish). Brazilian Embassy in Mexico. Archived from the original on February 2, 2009. Retrieved April 9, 2009.
^"INICIO". Embamex.sre.gob.mx. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
^"Inicio". Consulmex.sre.gob.mx. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
^"Inicio". Consulmex.sre.gob.mx. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
^ abCanadian Embassy in Mexico. "Bilateral Cooperation". Government of Canada. Archived from the original on September 26, 2010. Retrieved April 4, 2009.
^ abcAduanas México. "Tratados de Libre Comercio"(PDF) (in Spanish). Servicio de Administración Tributaria (SAT). Archived from the original(PDF) on April 7, 2009. Retrieved April 9, 2009.
^Hora actual Chile: 16.41 hrs. México: 14.41 hrs (June 20, 2016). "Embajada de Chile en México". Chileabroad.gov.cl. Archived from the original on November 29, 2014. Retrieved September 18, 2016.((cite web)): CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^"Inicio". Embamex.sre.gob.mx. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
^Congress of the U.S. (October 26, 2006). "Secure Fence Act of 2006". The Library of Congress. Archived from the original on September 4, 2015. Retrieved April 5, 2009.
^ abMexican Ministry of Economy (2008). "Economic Association Agreement" (in Spanish). Mexican Embassy in Japan. Archived from the original on November 14, 2010. Retrieved April 6, 2009.
^ abMinistry of Foreign Affairs. "Bilateral Relations" (in Spanish). Mexican Embassy in France. Archived from the original on July 17, 2011. Retrieved April 14, 2009.
^ abMinistry of Foreign Affairs. "Diplomatic relations"(PDF) (in Spanish). Mexican Embassy in Germany. Archived from the original(PDF) on April 7, 2009. Retrieved April 15, 2009.
^"Mexico: Netherlands And Mexican Regulations To The Netherlands – Mexico Treaty Announced". Deloitte & Touche. September 23, 1997. Retrieved June 6, 2009. In a press release dated 14 March 1997, the Netherlands Ministry of Finance announced the Netherlands and Mexican regulations under the Netherlands – Mexico tax treaty and protocol, both of 27 September 1993. The Mexican regulations deal with the formalities to be observed by residents of the Netherlands in order to be exempt from, or obtain a refund of, the Mexican withholding taxes on dividends, interest and royalties.
^"Mexico, Netherlands amend treaty to curb tax evasion". Xinhua. 2008. Archived from the original on October 24, 2012. Retrieved June 6, 2009. Mexico and the Netherlands modified a tax treaty signed in 1993 in a bid to strength cooperation to curb tax evasion, Mexican Treasury and Public Credit Ministry said on Friday.
^Central Intelligence Agency (2008). "Illicit drugs". CIA: the World Fact Book. Archived from the original on December 29, 2010. Retrieved April 12, 2009.
Pereña-García, Mercedes (2001). Las Relaciones Diplomáticas de México. Plaza y Valdés, p. 94. ISBN968-856-917-8.
Velázquez Flores, Rafael (2007). Factores, Bases y Fundamentos de la Política Exterior de México. Plaza y Valdés, p. 331. ISBN970-722-473-8.
Alponte, Juan María (1993). La Política Exterior de México en el Nuevo Orden Mundial : Antología de Principios y Tesis. FCE, p. 428. ISBN968-16-4167-1.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2005) La Política Exterior Mexicana en la Transición. FCE, SRE, p. 281. ISBN968-16-7745-5.
Lajous Vargas, Roberta (2000) Los Retos de la Política Exterior de México en el Siglo XXI. SRE, p. 560. ISBN968-810-621-6.
El Colegio de México (2007). Historia General de México: Versión 2000. El Colegio de México, Centro de Estudios Históricos, p. 1103. ISBN968-12-0969-9.
Selee, Andrew D. (2007). More Than Neighbors: An Overview of Mexico and U.S.-Mexican Relations. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, p. 43. ISBN1-933549-26-2.
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