In mathematics, a functional square root (sometimes called a half iterate) is a square root of a function with respect to the operation of function composition. In other words, a functional square root of a function g is a function f satisfying f(f(x)) = g(x) for all x.

Notation

Notations expressing that f is a functional square root of g are f = g_[1/2] and f = g_1/2.^{[citation needed]}

History

• The functional square root of the exponential function (now known as a half-exponential function) was studied by Hellmuth Kneser in 1950.^[1]
• The solutions of f(f(x)) = x over ${\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }$ (the involutions of the real numbers) were first studied by Charles Babbage in 1815, and this equation is called Babbage's functional equation.^[2] A particular solution is f(x) = (b − x)/(1 + cx) for bc ≠ −1. Babbage noted that for any given solution f, its functional conjugate Ψ⁻¹∘ f ∘ Ψ by an arbitrary invertible function Ψ is also a solution. In other words, the group of all invertible functions on the real line acts on the subset consisting of solutions to Babbage's functional equation by conjugation.

Solutions

A systematic procedure to produce arbitrary functional n-roots (including arbitrary real, negative, and infinitesimal n) of functions ${\displaystyle g:\mathbb {C} \rightarrow \mathbb {C} }$ relies on the solutions of Schröder's equation.^[3][4][5] Infinitely many trivial solutions exist when the domain of a root function f is allowed to be sufficiently larger than that of g.

Examples

• f(x) = 2x² is a functional square root of g(x) = 8x⁴.
• A functional square root of the nth Chebyshev polynomial, ${\displaystyle g(x)=T_{n}(x)}$, is ${\displaystyle f(x)=\cos {({\sqrt {n))\arccos(x))))$, which in general is not a polynomial.
• ${\displaystyle f(x)=x/({\sqrt {2))+x(1-{\sqrt {2))))}$ is a functional square root of ${\displaystyle g(x)=x/(2-x)}$.

sin_[2](x) = sin(sin(x)) [red curve]

sin_[1](x) = sin(x) = rin(rin(x)) [blue curve]

sin_[1/2](x) = rin(x) = qin(qin(x)) [orange curve]

sin_[1/4](x) = qin(x) [black curve above the orange curve]

sin_[–1](x) = arcsin(x) [dashed curve]

(See.^[6] For the notation, see [1].)