The traditional period used by historians for Gaya chronology is AD 42–532. According to archaeological evidence in the third and fourth centuries some of the city-states of Byeonhan evolved into the Gaya confederacy, which was later annexed by Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The individual polities that made up the Gaya confederacy have been characterized as small city-states.[2] The material culture remains of Gaya culture mainly consist of burials and their contents of mortuary goods that have been excavated by archaeologists. Archaeologists interpret mounded burial cemeteries of the late third and early fourth centuries such as Daeseong-dong in Gimhae and Bokcheon-dong in Busan as the royal burial grounds of Gaya polities.[3]
Although most commonly referred to as Gaya (가야; 加耶, 伽耶, 伽倻; [kaja]), probably due to the imprecision of transcribing Korean words into hanja, historical sources use a variety of names, including Garak (가락; 駕洛, 迦落; [kaɾak]), Gara (가라; 加羅, 伽羅, 迦羅, 柯羅; [kaɾa]), Garyang (가량;加良; [kaɾjaŋ]), and Guya (구야; 狗耶; [kuja]).[4] According to Christopher I. Beckwith, "The spelling Kaya is the modern Korean reading of the characters used to write the name; the pronunciation /kara/ (transcriptionally *kala) is certain."[5]
In Japanese, Gaya is referred to as Mimana (任那), a name with considerable political connotations. However, a word kara (から, 韓 'Korea', 唐 '[Tang] China', 漢 '[Han] China'), which is probably from the name of Gaya on the Korean Peninsula of antiquity, has been preserved in Japanese with the sense "China or Korea, mainland East Asia" and, more recently, an even more vague sense of "the nations overseas, foreign country."[6]
The genetic diversity in the Gaya Kingdom region is linked to Jomon-related ancestry.[9]
History
According to a legend recorded in the Samguk Yusa written in the 13th century, in the year AD 42, six eggs descended from heaven with a message that they would be kings. Six boys were born, and within 12 days they grew mature. One of them, named Suro, became the king of Geumgwan Gaya, and the other five founded the remaining five Gayas, namely Daegaya, Seongsan Gaya, Ara Gaya, Goryeong Gaya, and Sogaya.[10]
The Gaya polities evolved out of the chiefly political structures of the twelve tribes of the ancient Byeonhan confederacy, one of the Samhan confederacies. The loosely organized chiefdoms resolved into six Gaya groups, centered on Geumgwan Gaya. On the basis of archaeological sources as well as limited written records, scholars such as Sin have identified the late 3rd century as a period of transition from Byeonhan to Gaya, with increasing military activity and changing funerary customs.[11] Sin[12] further argues that this was associated with the replacement of the previous elite in some principalities (including Daegaya) by elements from the Buyeo kingdom, who brought a more militaristic ideology and style of rule.[13]
After the Eight Port Kingdoms War(浦上八國 亂)(209~212) between Silla and Gaya, Gaya was influenced by Silla's southeast peninsular hegemony, but diplomatically utilized the influence of Japan and Baekje to maintain independence. The Gaya Confederacy disintegrated under pressure from Goguryeo between 391 and 412, although the last Gaya polities remained independent until they were conquered by Silla in 562, as punishment for assisting Baekje in a war against Silla.
In 529, Silla destroys Takgitan Gaya(啄己呑國) under the pretext of its alliance with Daegaya and take half of Taksun Gaya(卓淳國)'s territory. This led Daegaya lost its trust within the Gaya and began to unite around the Ara Gaya, which was maintaining a strong power. In order to escape interference between Baekje and Silla in Gaya, the Ara Gaya invited Silla, Baekje, and japan to hold the Anra Conference(安羅會議). Although they wanted to pressure Silla through the meeting to rebuild the Takgitan Gaya(啄己呑國) and raise the international status of Anra, however, Baekje preferred strong diplomacy and Silla was not interested in it. Although Japan was pro-Anra Gaya, But it was unable to help due to internal problems.
[14][15][16]
In 541 and 544, Sabi Conference(泗沘會議) led by Baekje and participated by seven countries, including Ara and Imna, were held, but Ara still did not believe in Baekje. As a result of the conference, Gaya attacked Goguryeo with the Silla-Baekje alliance and acquired Seoul , but Baekje was betrayed by Silla and Gaya was also absorbed by Silla.
[17][18]
Polities were situated in the alluvial flats of tributary river valleys and the mouth of the Nakdong. In particular, the mouth of the Nakdong has fertile plains, direct access to the sea, and rich iron deposits. Gaya polities had economies that were based on agriculture, fishing, casting, and long-distance trade. They were particularly known for its iron-working, as Byeonhan had been before it. Gaya polities exported abundant quantities of iron ore, iron armor, and other weaponry to Baekje and the Kingdom of Wa. In contrast to the largely commercial and non-political ties of Byeonhan, Gaya polities seem to have attempted to maintain strong political ties with those kingdoms as well.
Several ancient historical records list a number of polities of Gaya. For example, Goryeo Saryak (고려사략; 高麗史略) lists five: Geumgwan Gaya, Goryeong Gaya, Bihwa Gaya, Ara Gaya, and Seongsan Gaya.
The various Gaya polities formed a confederacy in the 2nd and 3rd centuries that was centered on the heartland of Geumgwan Gaya in modern Gimhae. After a period of decline, the confederacy was revived around the turn of the 5th and 6th centuries, this time centered on Daegaya of modern Goryeong. However, it was unable to defend itself against the incursions and attacks of the neighboring kingdom of Silla.
Political and trade relations with Japan have been a source of nationalist controversy in both Korea and Japan. Japanese publicists during the twentieth century looked to the Nihon Shoki, which claims that Gaya (named "Mimana" also "Kara" in Japanese) was a military outpost of Japan during the Yamato period (300–710). While there is no evidence to support this, the claim has nonetheless been advocated at various times by Japanese imperialists, nationalists and press to justify the Japanese colonial rule of Korea between 19th and 20th centuries.[19][20]
Archaeological evidence suggests that Gaya polities were the main exporter of technology and culture to Kyushu at that time. The theory of a Japanese outpost is widely rejected in Korea as there was no Japanese local groups at the time that had a strong enough military power to conquer Gaya or any other part of Korea.[21][22] The technology of Gaya was more advanced than that of the Japanese dynasties of the time.[21][22]
In 2010, a joint study group of historians sponsored by the governments of Japan and South Korea agreed that Gaya had never been military colonized by ancient Japan. [23]
Gallery
An exhibition of royal tomb of Daegaya. Goryeong, Gyeongsangbuk-do.
Gold crown and accessories.
Horn-shaped cup from Gaya that may illustrate connection of Persian culture through the Silk Road to Korea.
Gaya pottery at the National Museum of Korea.
Earthenwares display in Museum of Daegaya.
Shield ornaments excavated from the Daeseong-dong cemetery site in Gimhae.
This iron helmet illustrates the skill of iron-working and importance of iron from the Nakdong River valley.
Refinery model of Gaya people.
Gaya Crown
Earrings of Gaya.
A Gaya soldier (After 412, armor style influenced by Goguryeo.)
^(2001). Kaya. In The Penguin Archaeology Guide, edited by Paul Bahn, pp. 228–229. Penguin, London.
^Barnes, Gina L. (2001). Introducing Kaya History and Archaeology. In State Formation in Korea: Historical and Archaeological Perspectives, pp. 179–200. Curzon, London.
^Janhunen, Juha (2010). "Reconstructing the language map of prehistorical Northeast Asia". Studia Orientalia 108 (2010). ... there are strong indications that the neighbouring Baekje state (in the southwest) was predominantly Japonic-speaking until it was linguistically Koreanized.
^Vovin, Alexander (2013). "From Koguryo to Tamna: Slowly riding to the South with speakers of Proto-Korean". Korean Linguistics. 15 (2): 222–240.
^This is presumed because of the confusion caused by a series of displaced peoples southward movements following the invasion of Wei in 242, invasion of the Xianbei in 285, the fall of lelang in 313
In March, 近江毛野臣 was dispatched as an envoy to Anra, and the emperor ordered Silla to rebuild Southern Garas and Takgitan. Baekje dispatched generals "君尹貴","麻那甲背" and "麻鹵" to Anra for orders. Because Silla destroyed the government houses in the country, it did not send those in high rank officer, but sent "夫智奈麻禮" and "奚奈麻禮" to Anra to hear orders. At this time, Anra made a new "godang(高堂)" and made them go up to the royal temple. The king of Anra followed up the stairs, and one or two people with a high official rank of Anra climbed above, but Baekje's general "君" was below. Since the meeting was held on the party floor for many months, General "君" felt bad for what was below.
^백승옥. 2004, "安羅高堂會議'의 성격과 安羅國의 위상", 지역과 역사, vol.0, no.14 pp.7-39.
^: The Nature of 'Anragodang Conference(安羅高堂會議)' and the Position of AnraGuk(安羅國)
^Lee, Peter H & Wm. Theodore De Bary. Sources of Korean Tradition. Columbia University Press, 1997. ISBN0-231-10567-3. Page 14
^ abKenneth B. Lee (1997). "4. Korea and Early Japan, 200 B.C. -700 A.D.". Korea and East Asia: The Story of a Phoenix. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 31 ~ 35p. ISBN978-0-275-95823-7.
