The Ghegs (also spelled as Gegs; Albanian: Gegët) are one of two major dialectal subgroups of Albanians (the other being the Tosks)[1] They are also differentiated by minor cultural, dialectal, social and religious characteristics.[2][3][4] The Ghegs live in Albania (north of the Shkumbin river), Kosovo, North Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro. The Ghegs speak Gheg Albanian, one of the two main dialects of Albanian language. The social organization of the Ghegs was traditionally tribal, with several distinct tribal groups of Ghegs.

The Ottoman Empire annexed and ruled the Tosk-inhabited south at the beginning of the 15th century, while the territory populated by Ghegs remained out of the reach of the regular Ottoman civil administration until the beginning of the 20th century. As a consequence, the Ghegs evolved isolated from the Tosks.[5] Similarly, the Islamization of the Ghegs was incomplete, with a large area of northwestern Albania remaining Catholic. The Ottomans never completely subdued the northern Albanian tribes of Ghegs because they were more useful to them as a stable source of mercenaries. Instead, they implemented the bayraktar system, and granted some privileges to the bayraktars (banner chiefs) in exchange for their obligation to mobilize local fighters to support military actions of the Ottoman forces.[citation needed]

Terminology

Proper Gegnia (the land of the Gegë) is located north of the Shkumbin river along its right bank and extends up to modern border between Mat and Mirdita, where Leknia begins. Leknia itself is bordered to the north by Malësia. None of these regions overlap with one another and each has its own self-identification. This is reflected in the fact that only the people of proper Gegnia call themselves Gegë, while moving northwards it is not a form of regional self-identification. For example, the people of the Dukagjin highlands when asked about their regional appellation would reply na nuk jemi gegë, gegët janë përtej maleve (we are not Gheghs, the Ghegs live beyond the mountains).[6]

The popular perception in non-Albanian literature of all northern Albanians as Ghegs is a product of identifying major dialect groups with all corresponding regional groupings. Likewise, only the people of certain regions in southern Albania identify as Tosks.

Etymology

The etymology of the term Gheg is not completely clear. According to the writer Arshi Pipa, the term Gegë was initially used for confessional denotation, being used in pre-Ottoman Albania by its Orthodox population when referring to their Catholic neighbors.[7] Some theories say that the term Gegë is derived from the onomatopoeic word for "babbling", in contrast to Shqiptare which is the Albanian word for those who speak clearly. This is sometimes considered illogical because the self-ethnonym Shqiptare seems to have been developed by Ghegs.[8] According to the Austrian-Czech linguist Julius Pokorny, it derived from (Attic) Greek "γίγας" (giant). From the Homeric mythology the giants of the Acroceraunian mountains and probably denoting originally warlike invading tribes descending from Epirus. Cognate to Arbëreshë (dialectal and archaic) "glatë" (tall, long) (Standard Albanian "gjatë", Gheg "gat"); Albanian "gatë" (heron) and Latin "gigas" (giant).[9]

Territory

Ethnographic regions of the Ghegs

In Albania, Ghegs predominantly live north of the Shkumbin river and in areas of the mountainous north.[3][10] This region is widely referred to by Albanians as Gegënia or Gegnia[11] and as Gegëria.[12]

The Ottoman Turkish term, used during the times when Albania and the wider area was included in the empire, was Gegalık, meaning land of the Ghegs.[11] During the late Ottoman period apart from the term Arnavudluk (Albania) being used for Albanian regions, the designation Gegalık was also used in documents by Ottomans.[13] Gegëni or Gegalık encompassed the İșkodra, Kosovo, and a small area of the Monastir vilayets.[11] In the 1880s, Albanians defined the wider region of Gegalık (Ghegland) as encompassing the Ottoman administrative units of İșkodra (Shkodër) and Duraç (Durrës) sanjaks that composed İșkodra vilayet (province), the sanjaks of Yenipazar (Novi Pazar), İpek (Pejë), Priștine (Prishtinë), Prizren, Üsküp (Skopje) of Kosovo vilayet and the sanjak of Debre (Debar) in Monastir vilayet.[14]

Little more than half of ethnic Albanians from Albania are Ghegs.[15] Except for a Tosk population in north-western Greece and around lake Prespa as well as southern North Macedonia, all ethnic Albanians in the Balkans who live outside of Albania (Kosovo, North Macedonia and Montenegro) are Ghegs.[16]

Language

Main article: Gheg Albanian
Gheg dialect and sub-dialects shown in red.

The Ghegs speak Gheg Albanian, one of the two main Albanian dialects. The Albanian communist regime based the standard Albanian language mostly on Tosk Albanian. This practice has been criticized, notably by Arshi Pipa, who claimed that this decision deprived the Albanian language of its richness at the expense of the Ghegs,[17] and referred to the literary Albanian language as a "monstrosity" produced by the Tosk communist leadership which conquered anti-Communist north Albania militarily, and imposed their Tosk Albanian dialect on the Ghegs.[18] Although Albanian writers in former Yugoslavia were almost all Ghegs, they chose to write in Tosk for political reasons.[19] This change of literary language has significant political and cultural consequences because the language is the main criterion for Albanian self-identification.[20]

Gheg woman from North Albania

Social organization

The social organization of the Ghegs was traditionally tribal.[21][22] The Ghegs of Northern Albania are one of only two tribal societies which survived in Europe until the middle of the 20th century (the other being the Montenegrin highlanders in Montenegro and southern Serbia).[23] The tribal organization was based on the clan system of loyalties, and the dispersed settlement pattern of separate, scattered, mostly fortified homesteads.[24] There are several distinct tribal groups of Ghegs which include Mirëdita, Kelmendi, Palabardhi, Kuqi, Vasajt, Hoti, Kastrati, Berisha, Krasniqi and Shala.[25] Other important tribal groupings include the highlanders of the Dibra region known as the "Tigers of Dibra".[26] Western Kosovo during the late Ottoman period was dominated by the Albanian tribal system, while parts of Albanian society within wider Kosovo were also part of the urban-professional and landowning classes of major towns.[27]

The Ghegs, particularly those who lived in the north-eastern area, were the most faithful supporters of the set of traditional laws (Kanun), traditional hospitality, and blood feud.[24] Among Gheg Malësors (highlanders) the fis (clan) was headed by the oldest male and formed the basic unit of tribal society.[28] A political and territorial equivalent consisting of several clans was the bajrak (standard).[28] The leader of a bajrak, whose position was hereditary, was referred to as bajraktar (standard bearer).[28] Several bajraks composed a tribe, which was led by a man from a notable family, while major issues were decided by the tribe assembly whose members were male members of the tribe.[29][28]

The organization of once predominantly herder Gheg tribes was traditionally based on patrilineality (a system in which an individual belongs to his or her father's lineage), and on exogamy (a social arrangement where marriage is allowed only outside of a social group).[30] The land belongs to the clan, and families are traditionally extended, consisting of smaller families of many brothers who all live in one extended ménage (Albanian: shtëpi. Gheg Albanian: shpija).[31] Girls were married without their consent, while bride stealing still existed to some extent until the early 20th century.[32] Marriage was basically an economic and political deal arranged among the members of the tribe, while those who got married had no say in the matter.[33] Sworn virginity was occasionally practised among the Ghegs.[34] Child betrothal was also practised by the Ghegs, sometimes even before birth.[35][36]

Religion

Christianity in Albania was under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome until the eighth century. Then, dioceses in Albania were transferred to the patriarchate of Constantinople. In 1054 after the schism, the north became identified with the Roman Catholic Church.[37] Since that time all churches north of the Shkumbin river were Catholic and under the jurisdiction of the Pope.[38] Various reasons have been put forward for the spread of Catholicism among northern Albanians. Traditional affiliation with the Latin rite and Catholic missions in central Albania in the 12th century fortified the Catholic Church against Orthodoxy, while local leaders found an ally in Catholicism against Slavic Orthodox states.[39] [38][40]

During the Ottoman period in the history of Albania (1385–1912), the majority of Albanians converted to Islam. Today, the majority of Ghegs are Sunni Muslims, with a large minority being Catholic. Catholic Albanians are most heavily concentrated in northwestern Albania and the Malësia region of southeastern Montenegro, in both of which they form of a majority of population, while they have a thinner distribution in central Albania and northeastern Albania and Kosovo. There are also Ghegs who practice Orthodox Christianity, mainly living in the southwest of the Gheg-speaking region, especially Durrës (where they formed 36% of the population in 1918) and Elbasan (where they formed 17% of the population in 1918).[41] Orthodox Ghegs were traditionally also heavily concentrated in the region of Upper Reka (Reka e Epërme) in North Macedonia. There are also some groups of Ghegs who practice Bektashism, living in areas such as Kruja and Bulqiza. Additionally, as is the case with all Albanians as a legacy of the Enver Hoxha regime, many people don't identify with any faith, and a large number of people do not usually attend the services of any religion.[42][43][44][45]

Culture

Albanian wedding ceremony in Valbona, northern Albania

After the Tanzimat reforms in the second half of the 19th century, aiming to gain influence over Catholic Albanians, Austria-Hungary, with Ottoman approval, opened and financed many schools in the Albanian language, and Franciscan seminaries and hospitals, and trained native clergy, which all resulted in the development of literature in the Albanian language.[46] The culture of the Ghegs blossomed at the beginning of 20th century. Gjergj Fishta and the Scutarine Catholic School of Letters led by Fishta significantly contributed to this blossoming.[47] The Ghegs are known for their epic poetry.[48]

The revival of Catholicism among Albanians gave a new and important impulse to the rise of Gheg culture.[49]

Physical anthropology

The Ghegs have often been described as taller, more slender and having a lighter skin color than the Tosks, who are described as being of a darker Mediterranean type.[50] The Tosks have smaller noses and rounder faces than Ghegs.[51] C. S. Coon described the Ghegs as being of the "Dinaric race".[52] Some claim that this difference has been reduced because of population movement in the period after 1992.[53] The average height of Ghegs seems to be between 177 cm to 187 cm (182cm).[54]

The average height of men in Kosovo is 179.5 centimetres (5 ft 10.7 in) and of women is 165.7 centimetres (5 ft 5.2 in),[55] making the population of Kosovo among the tallest in the world.[55]

History

Pre-Ottoman and Ottoman period

There was a distinction between Ghegs and Tosks before the Ottomans appeared in Albania at the end of the 14th century.[56]

The Ghegs remained out of the reach of the regular Ottoman civil administration until the end of Ottoman rule.[57] In areas where Ghegs were still tribesmen they followed their own laws and lived an autonomous existence.[58] The fact that the tribes of northern Albania were not completely subdued by the Ottomans is raised to the level of orthodoxy among the members of the tribes. A possible explanation is that the Ottomans did not have any real interest in subduing the northern Albanian tribes because they were more useful to them as a stable source of mercenaries. The Ottomans implemented the bayraktar system within northern Albanian tribes, and granted some privileges to the bayraktars (banner chiefs) in exchange for their obligation to mobilize local fighters to support military actions of the Ottoman forces.[59] During the late Ottoman period Ghegs often lacked education and integration within the Ottoman system, while they had autonomy and military capabilities.[22] Those factors gave the area of Gegënia an importance within the empire that differed from Toskëria.[22] Still many Ottoman officers thought that Ghegs, in particular the highlanders were often a liability instead of an asset for the state being commonly referred to as "wild" (Turkish: vahşi).[22] In areas of Albania were Malësors (highlanders) lived, the empire only posted Ottoman officers who had prior experience of service in other tribal regions of the state like Kurdistan or Yemen that could bridge cultural divides with Gheg tribesmen.[58]

The Great Eastern Crisis resulted in Albanian resistance to partition by neighbouring powers with the formation of the Prizren League (1878) which issued a Kararname (memorandum) that declared both Ghegs and Tosks had made an oath to defend the state and homeland in the name of Islam.[60] During the crisis Ghegs and Tosks made besas (pledges of honour) to arm themselves and shed blood to defend their rights.[61] Better armed than its southern Tosk counterpart, Gheg society was in a more effective position to resist the redrawing of borders in the region.[62] Ottoman officials initially assisted Gheg Albanians in their efforts to resist incorporation of their lands into Serbia, Montenegro or Bulgaria.[63] Ghegs experienced a brief moment of an autonomous administration where local tax was collected into Albanian coffers.[64] Calls for an autonomous united Albania made sultan Abdul Hamid II suppress the League of Prizren movement, especially after Gheg Albanians revolted in 1881 and posed a military challenge to Ottoman authority.[65]

Large parts of Gegënia posed a security problem for the Ottoman Empire, due to the tribalism of Gheg society and limited state control.[66] Gheg freedoms were tolerated by Abdul Hamid II and he enlisted them in his palace guard, integrated the sons of local notables from urban areas into the bureaucracy and co-opted leaders like Isa Boletini into the Ottoman system.[66] During the Young Turk Revolution (1908) some Ghegs were one group in Albanian society that gave its support for the restoration of the Ottoman constitution of 1876 to end the Hamidian regime.[67] Subsequent centralising policies and militarism toward the Albanian Question by the new Young Turk government resulted in four years of local revolts by Ghegs who fought to keep tribal privileges and the defense system of kulas (tower houses).[68] Ghegs from the Shkodër region supported the Greçë Memorandum that called for Albanian sociopolitical rights within the Ottoman Empire during the Albanian revolt of 1911.[69] On the eve of the Balkan Wars (1912-1913) Gheg and Tosk Albanians managed to secure two concessions from the Ottoman government: the rights of Albanian ethnicity and rights for the highlander population during the Albanian revolt of 1912.[68]

Albania

The Ghegs were dominant in the political life of Albania in the pre-communist period.

During World War II Nazi Germany recruited Ghegs from the northern territory of the Albanian Kingdom into the 21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg (1st Albanian). This recruitment was also supported by some anthropological research which considered Ghegs an Aryan race.[70]

At the end of World War II, communist forces predominantly composed of Tosks captured Albania after the retreat of the Wehrmacht. That was perceived by many Ghegs as the Tosk takeover of Gheg lands.[71] Most members of the post-war communist regime and three quarters of the Communist Party of Albania members were Tosks. Therefore, the communist takeover was accompanied by the transfer of political power from the Ghegs to the Tosks.[72] The Ghegs were consistently persecuted by the predominantly Tosk regime, which saw them as traditionalist and less developed.[73] After Enver Hoxha died in 1985, he was succeeded by Ramiz Alia, who was one of the few Ghegs among the leaders of the country.[74] He took cautious steps towards changing direction on the national identity issue by gradually assuming the cause of the Ghegs from Kosovo.[75] This change was accompanied by a long-lasting fear that the introduction of "too-liberal" Albanians from Kosovo might disturb the fragile balance between the Tosk and Gheg sub-ethnic groups.[75] Absorbing Yugoslav Ghegs, who were almost as numerous as all Albanians from Albania, could have ruined the predominantly Tosk regime.[76][77]

After the fall of the communist regime, religion was again the major factor which determined social identity, and rivalry between Ghegs and Tosks re-emerged.[78] The new political leaders of post-communist Albania appointed by Gheg[79] Sali Berisha were almost all Ghegs from northern Albania.[80][81] The administration of Sali Berisha was identified as northern nationalist Gheg in opposition to southern Socialist Tosk,[82] which additionally increased the contention between Tosks and Ghegs.[83] In 1998 Berisha exploited the traditional Gheg—Tosk rivalry when he encouraged armed anti-Government protesters in Shkodër in actions that forced the resignation of prime minister Fatos Nano.[84]

During the Kosovo War, rivalry between Ghegs and Tosks faded, and a huge number of refugees from Kosovo were catered for with no internal conflict, despite unavoidable grumbles about the disruption of the community and theft.[85]

See also

References

  1. ^ Piotr Eberhardt (January 2003). Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe: History, Data, and Analysis. M.E. Sharpe. p. 433. ISBN 978-0-7656-1833-7. Retrieved 13 July 2013. The Albanians comprise two ethnic subgroups: the Ghegs, who generally occupy the area north of the Shkumbin river; and the Tosks, most of whom live south of the river.
  2. ^ Barringer, Herbert (1965). Social Change in Developing Areas: A Reinterpretation of Evolutionary Theory. Schenkman Publishing Company. p. 214. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
  3. ^ a b Monika Shehi (2007). When East Meets West: Examining Classroom Discourse at the Albanian Socio-political Intersection. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-549-12813-7. Retrieved 13 July 2013. There were and there remain distinct cultural and linguistic differences between Albanian Ghegs and Tosks[permanent dead link]
  4. ^ Hugh Poulton; Suha. Taji Faruqi (January 1997). Muslim Identity and the Balkan State. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 117. ISBN 978-1-85065-276-2. Retrieved 13 July 2013. the two ethnic sub-groups to which Albanians actually belong: the Ghegs in the north and the Tosks in the south... The Ghegs and Tosks differ from each other in linguistic, historical-cultural and socio-religious character.
  5. ^ Richard C. Frucht (2005). Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture. ABC-CLIO. p. 698. ISBN 978-1-57607-800-6. Retrieved 15 July 2013. Thus the Tosks and the Ghegs evolved virtually in isolation until Albania obtained its independence.
  6. ^ Zojzi, Rrok; Dajaka, Abaz; Gjergji, Andromaqi; Qatipi, Hasan (1962). Etnografa Shqiptare. Academy of Sciences of Albania. p. 27.
  7. ^ Arshi Pipa (1989). The Politics of Language in Socialist Albania. East European Monographs. p. 190. ISBN 978-0-88033-168-5. Retrieved 15 July 2013. ...was a confessional name in pre-Ottoman Albania.
  8. ^ Tomasz Kamusella (15 January 2009). The politics of language and nationalism in modern Central Europe. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 242. ISBN 978-0-230-55070-4. Retrieved 15 July 2013. Gheg (Gege) seems to be derived from an onomatopoeic word for 'babbling,' as contrasted with Shqiptare, or 'those who speak clearly, correctly.
  9. ^ “Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch”, J. Pokorny, 1959, Bern : Francke
  10. ^ Gawrych 2006, pp. 21, 29.
  11. ^ a b c Gawrych 2006, p. 21.
  12. ^ Jaroslav Krej cí; Vitězslav Velímský (1981). Ethnic And Political Nations In Europe. Taylor & Francis. p. 205. ISBN 978-0-85664-988-2. Retrieved 13 July 2013. ...the Ghegs in the north (Ghegeria) and the Tosks in the south (Toskeria)
  13. ^ Gawrych 2006, p. 22.
  14. ^ Gawrych 2006, pp. 28–29.
  15. ^ Piotr Eberhardt (January 2003). Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe: History, Data, and Analysis. M.E. Sharpe. p. 433. ISBN 978-0-7656-1833-7. Retrieved 13 July 2013. The Ghegs account for slightly more than half of the resident Albanian
  16. ^ Simon Broughton; Mark Ellingham; Richard Trillo (1999). World music: the rough guide. Africa, Europe and the Middle East. Rough Guides. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-85828-635-8. Retrieved 13 July 2013. Most of the ethnic Albanians that live outside the country are Ghegs, although there is a small Tosk population clustered around the shores of lakes Presp and Ohrid in the south of Macedonia.
  17. ^ Canadian review of studies in nationalism: Revue canadienne des études sur le nationalisme, Volume 19. University of Prince Edward Island. 1992. p. 206. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
  18. ^ Canadian review of studies in nationalism: Revue canadienne des études sur le nationalisme, Volume 19. University of Prince Edward Island. 1992. p. 207. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
  19. ^ Arshi Pipa (1978). Albanian literature: social perspectives. R. Trofenik. p. 173. ISBN 978-3-87828-106-1. Retrieved 15 July 2013. Although the Albanian population in Yugoslavia is almost exclusively Gheg, the Albanian writers there have chosen, for sheer political reasons, to write in Tosk
  20. ^ Telos. Telos Press. 1989. p. 1. Retrieved 16 July 2013. The political-cultural relevance of the abolition of literary Gheg with literary Tosk....Albanians identify themselves with language...
  21. ^ Mirela Bogdani; John Loughlin (15 March 2007). Albania and the European Union: The Tumultuous Journey Towards Integration and Accession. I.B.Tauris. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-84511-308-7. Retrieved 13 July 2013. The traditional social organization of the Ghegs was tribal
  22. ^ a b c d Gawrych 2006, p. 29.
  23. ^ I. M. Lewis (1970). History and social anthropology. Taylor & Francis. p. 254. ISBN 9780422718608. Retrieved 12 May 2013. Ghegs of northern Albania present the only true example of a tribal system surviving in Europe until the mid-twentieth century.
  24. ^ a b Russell King; Nicola Mai (15 January 2011). Out of Albania: From Crisis Migration to Social Inclusion in Italy. Berghahn Books. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-85745-390-7. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
  25. ^ Great Britain. Admiralty (1916). A handbook of Serbia, Montenegro, Albania and adjacent parts of Greece. H.M. Stationery Office. p. 40. Retrieved 24 July 2013. ... the Ghegs being split up into a number of distinct tribal groups, such as the powerful and very independent Mirdite clan in the mountain fastnesses to the south-east of Scutari ; the Klementi, Hoti, Kastrati ; the Pulti, Shala,...
  26. ^ Gawrych 2006, pp. 35–36.
  27. ^ Gawrych 2006, pp. 34–35.
  28. ^ a b c d Gawrych 2006, pp. 30–31.
  29. ^ Barbara Jelavich (29 July 1983). History of the Balkans. Cambridge University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-521-27458-6. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
  30. ^ Jeffrey E. Cole (31 May 2011). Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-59884-303-3. Retrieved 14 July 2013. The Ghegs, who live in the northern mountainous regions, were traditionally herders and were organized around the exogamous, patrilineal
  31. ^ Jeffrey E. Cole (31 May 2011). Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-59884-303-3. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
  32. ^ Area Handbook for Yugoslavia. U.S. Government Pub. Press Office. 1973. p. 80. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
  33. ^ Douglas Saltmarshe (2001). Identity in a Post-Communist Balkan State: An Albanian Village Study. Ashgate Publishing, Limited. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-7546-1727-3. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
  34. ^ Gary David Comstock; Susan E. Henking (1 February 1997). Que(e)rying Religion: A Critical Anthology. Continuum. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-8264-0924-9. Retrieved 16 July 2013. ...Albanian sworn virginity can never have been more than occasional phenomenon among Ghegs
  35. ^ Gary David Comstock; Susan E. Henking (1 February 1997). Que(e)rying Religion: A Critical Anthology. Continuum. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-8264-0924-9. Retrieved 16 July 2013. Ghegs practiced childhood betrothal — there are reports of the betrothal of fetuses.
  36. ^ David Levinson (1992). Encyclopedia of world cultures. G.K. Hall. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-8168-8840-5. Retrieved 16 July 2013. Gheg clan society lasted until the 1950s in northern Albania. ... Children were betrothed sometimes even before birth, often in respect of an existing alliance or in order to establish friendship or piece
  37. ^ Ramet, Sabrina P. (1989). Religion and Nationalism in Soviet and East European Politics. Duke University Press. p. 381. ISBN 0-8223-0891-6. Albanian Christianity lay within the orbit of the bishop of Rome from the first century to the eighth. But in the eighth century Albanian Christians were transferred to the jurisdiction of the patriarch of Constantinople. With the schism of 1054, however, Albania was divided between a Catholic north and an Orthodox south. [..] Prior to the Turkish conquest, the ghegs (the chief tribal group in northern Albania) had found in Roman Catholicism a means of resisting the Slavs, and though Albanian Orthodoxy remained important among the tosks (the chief tribal group in southern Albania)
  38. ^ a b Murzaku, Ines (2015). Monasticism in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Republics. Routledge. p. 352. ISBN 978-1317391043. Retrieved 14 March 2020. The Albanian church north of Shkumbin River was entirely Latin and under the pope's jurisdiction. During the twelfth century, the Catholic church in Albania intensified efforts to strengthen its position in middle and southern Albania. The Catholic Church was organized in 20 dioceses.
  39. ^ Lala, Etleva (2008), Regnum Albaniae, the Papal Curia, and the Western Visions of a Borderline Nobility (PDF), Central European University, Department of Medieval Studies, p. 1
  40. ^ Leften Stavros Stavrianos (January 2000). The Balkans Since 1453. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 498. ISBN 978-1-85065-551-0. Retrieved 17 July 2013. Religious differences also existed before the coming of the Turks. Originally, all Albanians had belonged to the Eastern Orthodox Church... Then the Ghegs in the North adopted in order to better resist the pressure of Orthodox Serbs.
  41. ^ Gruber, Siegfried. Regional variation in marriage patterns in Albania at the beginning of the 20th century Archived 3 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Social Science History Association Annual Meeting St. Louis, October 24–27, 2002. Data ultimately from the 1918 Albanian census. Urban city data displayed on this map here: http://www-gewi.uni-graz.at/seiner/density.html Archived 27 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine.
  42. ^ "Instantanés d’Albaníe, un autre regard sur les Balkans" (2005), Etudiants en Tourisme et Actions Patrimoniales. (Plus de 72% irréligieux ou non pratiquants.) - "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-26.((cite web)): CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  43. ^ Zuckerman, Phil. "Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns ", chapter in The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, ed. by Michael Martin, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK (2005) - http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_472.html Archived 26 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine
  44. ^ O'Brien, Joanne and Martin Palmer (1993). The State of Religion Atlas. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster ("Over 50% of Albanians claim 'no religious alliance.'") - http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_472.html Archived 26 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine
  45. ^ Goring, Rosemary (ed). Larousse Dictionary of Beliefs & Religions (Larousse: 1994); pg. 581-584. Table: "Population Distribution of Major Beliefs" (Nonreligious 74.00%) - http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_472.html Archived 26 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine
  46. ^ George Gawrych (26 December 2006). The Crescent and the Eagle: Ottoman Rule, Islam and the Albanians, 1874-1913. I.B.Tauris. pp. 29, 30. ISBN 978-1-84511-287-5. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
  47. ^ Robert Elsie (19 March 2010). Historical Dictionary of Albania. Scarecrow Press. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-8108-7380-3. Retrieved 15 July 2013. ... a golden age in the first decades of the 20th century, and much credit for this blossoming of Gheg culture goes to him
  48. ^ Richard Nidel (2005). World Music: The Basics. Routledge. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-415-96800-3. Retrieved 16 July 2013. The Ghegs are known for a distinctive variety of epic poetry called Rapsodi Kreshnike sung by elderly men.
  49. ^ Archives de sciences sociales des religions. Centre national de la recherche scientifique (France). 2001. p. 179. Retrieved 16 July 2013. A new important impulse to the rise of Gheg culture is due to the revival of Albanian Catholicism, traditionally distinguished for ils highly prestigious cultural tradition and generic Albanianism.
  50. ^ Robin Hanbury-Tenison (15 July 2009). Land of eagles: riding through Europe's forgotten country. I. B. Tauris. p. 128. ISBN 978-1-84511-855-6. Retrieved 17 July 2013. Ghegs, who are often described as fair, are taller than Tosks, who are darker and more Mediterranean.
  51. ^ Lear, Aaron (1 January 1987). Albania. Chelsea House. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-55546-166-9. The Tosk people are shorter and have rounder faces and smaller noses than the Ghegs.
  52. ^ carleton stevens coon (1939). the races of europe. pp. 600–603.
  53. ^ Miranda Vickers (2007). The Albanian Question: Reshaping the Balkans. I.B.Tauris. p. 270. ISBN 978-1-86064-974-5. Retrieved 17 July 2013. ... Ghegs speak a slightly different dialect of the language, and are often taller and thinner than Tosks, but these traditional differences (often exaggerated in vulgar anthropology) have been much diminished by population movement in the post-communist period
  54. ^ Newman, Marshall T. (April 1952). "The Mountains of Giants. A Racial and Cultural Study of the North Albanian Ghegs . Carleton S. Coon". American Anthropologist. 54 (2): 258–259. doi:10.1525/aa.1952.54.2.02a00230. ISSN 0002-7294.
  55. ^ a b ""Regional Differences in Adult Body Height in Kosovo"" (PDF).
  56. ^ Leften Stavros Stavrianos (January 2000). The Balkans Since 1453. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 497. ISBN 978-1-85065-551-0. Retrieved 17 July 2013. These differences existed before appearance of Turks. Traditionally there has been the division between the Ghegs in the north and the Tosks in the south, the Shkumbi River being the line
  57. ^ Selçuk Akşin Somel (2001). The Modernization of Public Education in the Ottoman Empire, 1839-1908: Islamization, Autocracy, and Discipline. BRILL. p. 208. ISBN 978-90-04-11903-1. Retrieved 15 July 2013.
  58. ^ a b Gawrych 2006, p. 113.
  59. ^ Helaine Silverman (1 January 2011). Contested Cultural Heritage: Religion, Nationalism, Erasure, and Exclusion in a Global World. Springer. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-4419-7305-4. Retrieved 31 May 2013.
  60. ^ Gawrych 2006, pp. 46–47.
  61. ^ Gawrych 2006, p. 48.
  62. ^ Gawrych 2006, p. 61.
  63. ^ Gawrych 2006, p. 45.
  64. ^ Gawrych 2006, p. 70.
  65. ^ Gawrych 2006, pp. 60, 210.
  66. ^ a b Gawrych 2006, p. 205.
  67. ^ Gawrych 2006, pp. 3, 141.
  68. ^ a b Gawrych 2006, p. 201.
  69. ^ Gawrych, George (2006). The Crescent and the Eagle: Ottoman rule, Islam and the Albanians, 1874–1913. London: IB Tauris. p. 189. ISBN 9781845112875.
  70. ^ Jonathan Trigg (1 April 2009). Hitler's Jihadis: Muslim volunteers of the Waffen-SS. History Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-1-86227-487-7. Retrieved 22 July 2013.
  71. ^ Tomasz Kamusella (15 January 2009). The politics of language and nationalism in modern Central Europe. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-230-55070-4. Retrieved 15 July 2013. However, many Ghegs perceived this event as the Tosk conquest of Gheg lands.
  72. ^ Miranda Vickers (1999). The Albanians: A Modern History. I.B.Tauris. p. 164. ISBN 978-1-86064-541-9. Retrieved 15 July 2013. The Communist victory had realized the transference of political power from the Ghegs to the Tosks, and as around
  73. ^ Caroline Hamilton (1 August 2007). The politics and aesthetics of refusal. Cambridge Scholars Pub. p. 54. ISBN 978-1-84718-244-9. Retrieved 15 July 2013. Northern Ghegs were consistently persecuted by the largely Tosk-run socialist regime, stereotyped as less developed, steeped in traditional culture and communal law
  74. ^ Dennis Kavanagh (1998). "Alia, Ramiz". A Dictionary of Political Biography. Oxford University Press. p. 9.[ISBN missing]
  75. ^ a b Andrew C. Janos (2000). East Central Europe in the Modern World: The Politics of the Borderlands from Pre-To Postcommunism. Stanford University Press. p. 287. ISBN 978-0-8047-4688-5. Retrieved 13 July 2013.
  76. ^ Stefano Bianchini; Robert Craig Nation (1998). The Yugoslav Conflict and Its Implications for International Relations. Longo. p. 160. ISBN 978-88-8063-155-2. Retrieved 17 July 2013. It is furthermore undeniable that the entry into Albania of 1.5 million Ghegs from Kosovo would change the balance of power between Ghegs ...
  77. ^ Donald L. Horowitz (1 January 1985). Ethnic Groups in Conflict. University of California Press. p. 285. ISBN 978-0-520-05385-4. Retrieved 15 July 2013.
  78. ^ Miranda Vickers; James Pettifer (1997). Albania. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-85065-279-3. Retrieved 15 July 2013. Religion was once again a major factor in social identity, and elements of traditional Gheg- Tosk, north-south rivalries re-emerged.
  79. ^ The International Journal of Albanian Studies. Department of Political Science, Columbia University. 1997. p. 11. Retrieved 15 July 2013. Sali Berisha, a Gheg intellectual from the North-East
  80. ^ Human Rights Watch. Helsinki Watch (1995). Albania the Greek Minority. Human Rights Watch. p. 6. Retrieved 15 July 2013.
  81. ^ Hall Gardner; Elinore Schaffer; Oleg Kobtzeff (2000). Central and southeastern Europe in transition: perspectives on success and failure since 1989. Praeger. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-275-96460-3. Retrieved 15 July 2013. By contrast, the new leaders, including former president Sali Berisha, ousted in 1997, are almost all northern Ghegs
  82. ^ Miranda Vickers (2007). The Albanian Question: Reshaping the Balkans. I.B.Tauris. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-86064-974-5. Retrieved 15 July 2013. administration was identified as northern Gheg 'nationalist' as opposed to southern Tosk 'Socialist'
  83. ^ Hall Gardner; Elinore Schaffer; Oleg Kobtzeff (2000). Central and southeastern Europe in transition: perspectives on success and failure since 1989. Praeger. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-275-96460-3. Retrieved 15 July 2013. The fact that former president Sali Berisha, elected in April 1992, was a northerner from Tropojë has only intensified Gheg-Tosk rivalry.
  84. ^ Imogen Bell (2002). Central and South-Eastern Europe: 2003. Routledge. p. 641. ISBN 978-1-85743-136-0. Retrieved 15 July 2013. Exploiting the historic Gheg (north)-Tosk (south) rivalry, he encouraged rioters in the northern town of Shkoder (a traditional DPA stronghold) in February 1998 and, in September, led his armed supporters in anti-Government protests that led to resignation to prime minister Fatos Nano
  85. ^ Miranda Vickers (2007). The Albanian Question: Reshaping the Balkans. I.B.Tauris. p. 123. ISBN 978-1-86064-974-5. Retrieved 15 July 2013. ...national solidarity for the refugees was overwhelming, albeit coupled with inevitable grumbles about theft and community disruption. Gheg-Tosk rivalry faded and the nation was able to cater for a vast refugee influx without internal conflict

Further reading

External links

Authority control databases: National
Categories