| Gilgamesh tablet XI | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Material | clay |
| Size | Length: 15.24 cm (6.00 in) Breadth: 13.33 cm (5.25 in) Depth: 3.17 cm (1.25 in) |
| Writing | cuneiform |
| Created | 7th century BCE |
| Period/culture | Neo-Assyrian |
| Discovered | Kouyunjik |
| Present location | Room 55, British Museum, London |
| Identification | K.3375 |
The Gilgamesh flood myth is a flood myth in the Epic of Gilgamesh. Many scholars believe that the flood myth was added to Tablet XI in the "standard version" of the Gilgamesh Epic by an editor who used the flood story from the Epic of Atrahasis.[1] A short reference to the flood myth is also present in the much older Sumerian Gilgamesh poems, from which the later Babylonian versions drew much of their inspiration and subject matter.
Gilgamesh's supposed historical reign is believed to have been approximately 2700 BC,[2] shortly before the earliest known written stories. The discovery of artifacts associated with Aga and Enmebaragesi of Kish, two other kings named in the stories, has lent credibility to the historical existence of Gilgamesh.[3]
The earliest Sumerian Gilgamesh poems date from as early as the Third dynasty of Ur (2100–2000 BC).[4] One of these poems mentions Gilgamesh’s journey to meet the flood hero, as well as a short version of the flood story.[5] The earliest Akkadian versions of the unified epic are dated to ca. 2000–1500 BC.[6] Due to the fragmentary nature of these Old Babylonian versions, it is unclear whether they included an expanded account of the flood myth; although one fragment definitely includes the story of Gilgamesh's journey to meet Utnapishtim. The "standard" Akkadian version included a long version of the story and was edited by Sin-liqe-unninni,[7] who lived sometime between 1300 and 1000 BC.
The first Gilgamesh flood tablet was discovered by Hormuzd Rassam in Nineveh and was in the collection of the British Museum but had not been translated. In 1872, George Smith, an assistant at the British Museum, translated the tablet from the seventh-century B.C Akkadian. Reportedly, he exclaimed, "I am the first man to read that after more than two thousand years of oblivion".
While on a subsequent archeological expedition to Nineveh in Iraq, Smith found on May 7, 1873 a portion of a tablet containing the missing part of the flood story, describing the provisioning of the ark: "Into the midst of it thy grain, thy furniture, and thy goods, thy wealth, thy woman servants, thy female slaves...the animals of the field all, I will gather and I will send to thee, and they shall be enclosed in thy door."[8][9]
A much older Cuneiform tablet dating to 1646-1626 B.C., about one-thousand years before the Book of Genesis is believed to have been written, and known as the Epic of Atra-Hasis describing a great flood was discovered in 1898. J. P. Morgan acquired it and today it is in the Morgan Library & Museum.
In 2007, Andrew George translated a 3,200 year old tablet dating to around 1200 B.C. found during excavations at Ugarit. The tablet contains a fragment of the Epic of Gilgamesh, including parts of the story of Utnapishtim and the flood.[10]
The Gilgamesh flood tablet 11 (XI) contains additional story material besides the flood. The flood story was included because in it, the flood hero Utnapishtim is granted immortality by the gods and that fits the immortality theme of the epic. The main point seems to be that Utnapishtim was granted eternal life in unique, never-to-be-repeated circumstances. As if to demonstrate this point, Utnapishtim challenges Gilgamesh to stay awake for six days and seven nights. However, as soon as Utnapishtim finishes speaking Gilgamesh falls asleep. Utnapishtim instructs his wife to bake a loaf of bread for every day he is asleep so that Gilgamesh cannot deny his failure. Gilgamesh, who wants to overcome death, cannot even conquer sleep.
As Gilgamesh is leaving, Utnapishtim's wife asks her husband to offer a parting gift. Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh of a boxthorn-like plant at the very bottom of the ocean that will make him young again. Gilgamesh obtains the plant by binding stones to his feet so he can walk on the bottom of the sea. He recovers the plant and plans to test it on an old man when he returns to Uruk. Unfortunately, when Gilgamesh stops to bathe it is stolen by a serpent that sheds its skin as it departs, apparently reborn. Gilgamesh, having failed both chances, returns to Uruk, where the sight of its massive walls provokes him to praise this enduring work of mortal men. The implication may be that mortals can achieve immortality through lasting works of civilization and culture.
Lines 1-203, Tablet XI[11] (note: with supplemental sub-titles and line numbers added for clarity)
Note: 'Apsu' can refer to a freshwater marsh near the temple of Ea/Enki at the city of Eridu.[12]
In addition to the flood story material, (lines 1–203), tablet XI contains the following flood story elements:
List of titled subparts, Tablet XI-(by Kovacs):[13]
These are some of the sentences copied more or less directly from the Atrahasis version to the Gilgamesh epic:[14]
| Atrahasis Epic | Gilgamesh Epic, tablet XI |
|---|---|
| "Wall, listen to me." Atrahasis III,i,20 | "Wall, pay attention" Gilgamesh XI,22 |
| "Like the apsu you shall roof it" Atrahasis III,i,29 | "Like the apsu you shall roof it" Gilgamesh XI,31 |
| "I cannot live in [your city]" Atrahasis III,i,47 | "I cannot live in your city" Gilgamesh XI,40 |
| "Ninurta went forth making the dikes [overflow]" Atrahasis U rev,14 | "Ninurta went forth making the dikes overflow" Gilgamesh XI,102 |
| "One person could [not] see another" Atrahasis III,iii,13 | "One person could not see another" Gilgamesh XI,111 |
| "For seven days and seven nights came the storm" Atrahasis III,iv,24 | "Six days and seven nights the wind and storm flood" Gilgamesh XI,127 |
| "He offered [a sacrifice]" Atrahasis III,v,31 | "And offered a sacrifice" Gilgamesh XI,155 |
| "the lapis around my neck" Atrahasis III,vi,2 | "the lapis lazuli on my neck" Gilgamesh XI,164 |
| "How did man survive the destruction?" Atrahasis III,vi,10 | "No man was to survive the destruction" Gilgamesh XI,173 |
The Epic of Atrahasis provides additional information on the flood and flood hero that is omitted in Gilgamesh XI and other versions of the Ancient Near East flood myth. According to Atrahasis III ii, lines 40–47 the flood hero was at a banquet when the storm and flood began: "He invited his people ... to a banquet ... He sent his family on board. They ate and they drank. But he (Atrahasis) was in and out. He could not sit, could not crouch, for his heart was broken and he was vomiting gall."[15]
According to Tigay, Atrahasis tablet III iv, lines 6–9 clearly identify the flood as a local river flood: "Like dragonflies they [dead bodies] have filled the river. Like a raft they have moved in to the edge [of the boat]. Like a raft they have moved in to the riverbank." The sentence "Like dragonflies they have filled the river." was changed in Gilgamesh XI line 123 to "Like the spawn of fishes, they fill the sea."[16] Tigay holds that we can see the mythmaker's hand at work here, changing a local river flood into an ocean deluge.
Most other authorities interpret the Atrahasis flood as universal. A. R. George, and Lambert and Millard make it clear that the gods' intention in Atrahasis is to "wipe out mankind".[17] The flood destroys "all of the earth".[18] The use of a comparable metaphor in the Gilgamesh epic suggests that the reference to "dragonflies [filling] the river" is simply an evocative image of death rather than a literal description of the flood[19]
Other editorial changes were made to the Atrahasis text in Gilgamesh to lessen the suggestion that the gods may have experienced human needs. For example, Atrahasis OB III, 30–31 "The Anunnaki, the great gods [were sitt]ing in thirst and hunger" was changed in Gilgamesh XI, line 113 to "The gods feared the deluge." Sentences in Atrahasis III iv were omitted in Gilgamesh, e.g. "She was surfeited with grief and thirsted for beer" and "From hunger they were suffering cramp."[20]
These and other editorial changes to Atrahasis are documented and described in the book by Prof. Tigay (see below) who is associate professor of Hebrew and Semitic languages and literature in the University of Pennsylvania. Prof. Tigay comments: "The dropping of individual lines between others which are preserved, but are not synonymous with them, appears to be a more deliberate editorial act. These lines share a common theme, the hunger and thirst of the gods during the flood."[20]
Although the 18th century BC copy of the Atrahasis (Atra-Hasis) epic post-dates the early Gilgamesh epic, we do not know whether the Old-Akkadian Gilgamesh tablets included the flood story, because of the fragmentary nature of surviving tablets. Some scholars argue that they did not.[21] Tigay, for example, maintains that three major additions to the Gilgamesh epic, namely the prologue, the flood story (tablet XI), and tablet XII, were added by an editor or editors, possibly by Sin-leqi-unninni, to whom the entire epic was later attributed. According to this view, the flood story in tablet XI was based on a late version of the Atrahasis story.[22]
As with most translations, especially from an ancient, dead language, scholars differ on the meaning of ambiguous sentences.
For example, line 57 in Gilgamesh XI is usually translated (with reference to the boat) "ten rods the height of her sides",[23] or "its walls were each 10 times 12 cubits in height".[24] A rod was a dozen cubits, and a Sumerian cubit was about 20 inches. Hence these translations imply that the boat was about 200 feet high, which would be impractical[25] with the technology in Gilgamesh's time (about 2700 BC).[26] There is no Akkadian word for "height" in line 57. The sentence literally reads "Ten dozen-cubits each I-raised its-walls."[27] A similar example from an unrelated house building tablet reads: "he shall build the wall [of the house] and raise it four ninda and two cubits." This measurement (about 83 feet) means wall length not height.[28]
Line 142 in Gilgamesh XI is usually translated "Mount Niṣir held the boat, allowing no motion." Niṣir is often spelled Nimush,[29] which is described as the newer reading.[30] The Akkadian words translated "Mount Niṣir" are "KUR-ú KUR ni-ṣir".[31] The word KUR could mean hill or country; it is capitalized because it is a Sumerian word.[32] The first KUR is followed by a phonetic complement -ú which indicates that KUR-ú is to be read in Akkadian as šadú (hill) and not as mātu (country). Since šadú (hill) could also mean mountain in Akkadian, and scholars knew the Biblical expression Mount Ararat, it has become customary to translate šadú as mountain or mount. The flood hero was Sumerian, according to the WB-62 Sumerian King List,.[33] In Sumerian the word KUR's primary meaning is "mountain" as attested by the sign used for it.[34] From the word mountain, the meaning "foreign country" is developed due to mountainous countries bordering Sumer. KUR in Sumerian also means "land" in general.[34] The second KUR lacks a phonetic complement and is therefore read in Akkadian as mātu (country). Hence, the entire clause reads "The hill/mound country niṣir held the boat".
Lines 146-147 in Gilgamesh XI are usually translated "I ... made sacrifice, incense I placed on the peak of the mountain."[35] Similarly "I poured out a libation on the peak of the mountain."[36] But Kovacs[37] provides this translation of line 156: "I offered incense in front of the mountain-ziggurat." Parpola provides the original Akkadian for this sentence: "áš-kun sur-qin-nu ina UGU ziq-qur-rat KUR-i"[38] Áš-kun means I-placed; sur-qin-nu means offering; ina-(the preposition) means on-(upon); UGU means top-of; ziq-qur-rat means temple tower; and KUR-i means hilly. Parpola's glossary (page 145) defines ziq-qur-rat as "temple tower, ziggurat" and refers to line 157 so he translates ziq-qur-rat as temple tower in this context. The sentence literally reads "I placed an offering on top of a hilly ziggurat." A ziggurat was an elevated platform or temple tower where priests made offerings to the temple god. Most translators of line 157 disregard ziq-qur-rat as a redundant metaphor for peak. There is no authority for this other than previous translations of line 157.[39] Kovacs' translation retains the word ziggurat on page 102.
One of the Sumerian cities with a ziggurat was Eridu located on the southern branch of the Euphrates River next to a large swampy low-lying depression known as the apsû.[40] The only ziggurat at Eridu was at the temple of the god Ea (Enki), known as the apsû-house.[41] In Gilgamesh XI, line 42 the flood hero said "I will go down [the river] to the apsû to live with Ea, my Lord."[42]
Lines 189–192 (lines 198–201) in Gilgamesh XI are usually translated "Then godEnlil came aboard the boat. He took hold of my hand and brought me on board. He brought aboard my wife and made her kneel at my side. Standing between us, he touched our foreheads to bless us."[43] In the first sentence "Then dingir-kabtu came aboard the boat" the Akkadian determinative dingir is usually translated as "god", but can also mean "priest"[44] Dingir-kabtu literally means "divine important-person".[45] Translating this as Enlil is the translator's conjecture.
