Some populations of C. a. septentrionalis have in the past been separated as subspecies C. a. vanrossemi and C. a. isthmica. The population of Trinidad and Tobago, usually included with C. a. americana, has in the past been treated as subspecies C. a. croteta. Other populations of C. a. americana have been suggested to be split as C. a. hellmayri and C. a. bottomeana. None of these subspecies are currently (2022) recognized by major worldwide taxonomic systems.[11][9][2][12]
Description
The green kingfisher is about 20 cm (7.9 in) long and weighs about 35 to 40 g (1.2 to 1.4 oz); females are larger and heavier than males. Birds in the northern and southern parts of its range, and those west of the Andes, are larger and heavier than the others, but the differences tend to be clinal. The species has the typical kingfisher shape with long heavy bill (heaviest in Trinidad and Tobago); in contrast to many other kingfishers, however, it does not have an obvious crest. The bill is black with some horn color at the base of the mandible and its legs and feet are dark gray. Both sexes have green upperparts with two or more rows of white spots on the flight feathers. Their underparts are mostly white with green spots on the sides and flanks. Their tail is green with much white on the outer feathers that shows best in flight. Adult males have a white collar and a rufous breast. Adult females have a white collar, a buffy throat and breast, and a band of green speckles across the breast and upper belly. Juveniles resemble females but are duller and have small buff spots on their crown and wing coverts.[11]
One vocalization "resembles the striking of two pebbles together, usually single or double". Another is "a harsh, buzzy scold, described variously as tsheersh, tseelp or zchrrk". Authors differ on their interpretations of whether the vocalizations are calls or songs and if they are calls, what their purpose is.[11]
The subspecies differ somewhat in the shade of the upperparts' green, the amount of white on the wings and tail, the amount and size of the flank markings, and the extent of the breast bands (complete or not). However, there is much individual variation within each subspecies and the differences are to some extent clinal, so the differences among the subspecies tend to be obscured.[11]
Distribution and habitat
The subspecies of green kingfisher are distributed thus:[9][11]
C. a. hachisukai, from extreme southern Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, and west central Texas in the USA into northwestern Mexico to Nayarit
C. a. septentrionalis, from south central Texas and eastern Mexico south to northern Colombia and western Venezuela
C. a. americana, South America east of the Andes from Venezuela east through the Guianas into northern and central Brazil and south to northeastern Bolivia; also Trinidad and Tobago
C. a. mathewsii, from southern Brazil and southern Bolivia through Paraguay and Uruguay to central Argentina
C. a. cabanisii, west of the Andes from Colombia through Ecuador to southernmost Peru; as a vagrant to Chile[3]
The green kingfisher inhabits wooded shorelines of streams and freshwater ponds and lakes. It favors still or slow-moving water, and though it requires low vegetation for hunting perches it generally prefers relatively open habitat rather than dense forest.[11] It is a year-round resident throughout its range but roams a territory that may be as much as 1 km (0.6 mi) or more of river.[11]
Behavior
Feeding
The Amazon kingfisher usually hunts from a perch from which it dives into water for its prey. The perch is typically about 1 to 1.5 m (3 to 5 ft) high; it may be directly over water or within a few meters of its edge. In a study in Amazonia about half of the perches were bare snags and the rest were a mix of leafless and leafy trees and bushes. It usually shifts perches after each foray. Occasionally it hovers before diving, sometimes from as high as 6 m (20 ft). Pairs often defend feeding territories from other green kingfishers but seldom from other kingfisher species.[11]
The prey is mostly small fish but includes crustaceans such as shrimp and also adult and nymph aquatic and terrestrial insects. The size of the fish taken varies, apparently with availability and the presence of other species of kingfishers. Studies have published sizes as 8 to 80 mm (0.31 to 3.1 in), as averages of 19.4 mm (0.76 in) and 41.1 mm (1.6 in) at different sites, and as "seldom exceed[ing] a length of two inches".[11][13][14]
Breeding
The green kingfisher's breeding season varies geographically. In Central America it is during the dry season of spring and early summer. In Suriname and Guyana, it usually extends to August and occasionally to December or beyond. Breeding dates further south have not been documented. Both members of a pair excavate a nest burrow, almost always in an earthen bank of a stream or river. It is up to 1 m (3 ft) long with a small nest chamber at the end. The clutch size varies from two to six. The incubation period is 19 to 21 days; usually the female incubates at night and the parents alternate during the day. The young fledge 26 to 27 days after hatching and the parents chase juveniles from their territory about 29 days after fledging.[11]
Status
The IUCN has assessed the green kingfisher as being of Least Concern. It has an extremely large range. Its estimated population of about 20 million mature individuals is, however, believed to be decreasing. No immediate threats have been identified. [1]
^ abRemsen, J. V., Jr., J. I. Areta, E. Bonaccorso, S. Claramunt, A. Jaramillo, D. F. Lane, J. F. Pacheco, M. B. Robbins, F. G. Stiles, and K. J. Zimmer. Version 24 July 2022. Species Lists of Birds for South American Countries and Territories. https://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/SACCCountryLists.htm retrieved 24 July 2022
^Kaup, Johann Jakob (1848). "Die Familie der Eisvögel (Alcedidae)". Verhandlungen des Naturhistorischen Vereins für das Großherzogthum Hessen und Umgebung (in German). 2: 61–81 [68]. OCLC183221382.
^ abcdefghijMoskoff, W. (2020). Green Kingfisher (Chloroceryle americana), version 1.0. In Birds of the World (A. F. Poole and F. B. Gill, Editors). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.grnkin.01 retrieved December 13, 2022
^Clements, J. F., T. S. Schulenberg, M. J. Iliff, T. A. Fredericks, J. A. Gerbracht, D. Lepage, S. M. Billerman, B. L. Sullivan, and C. L. Wood. 2022. The eBird/Clements checklist of birds of the world: v2022. Downloaded from https://www.birds.cornell.edu/clementschecklist/download/ retrieved November 10, 2022
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