.jpg) Ham in January 1961, just before his suborbital flight into space | |
| Species | Common chimpanzee |
|---|---|
| Sex | Male |
| Born | July 1957 French Cameroon |
| Died | January 19, 1983 (aged 25) North Carolina Zoo, North Carolina, U.S. |
| Resting place | Museum of Space History New Mexico |
| Known for | First hominid in space |
Ham (July 1957 – January 19, 1983), a chimpanzee also known as Ham the Chimp and Ham the Astrochimp, was the first great ape launched into space. On January 31, 1961, Ham flew a suborbital flight on the Mercury-Redstone 2 mission, part of the U.S. space program's Project Mercury.[1][2]
Ham's name is an acronym for the laboratory that prepared him for his historic mission—the Holloman Aerospace Medical Center, located at Holloman Air Force Base in New Mexico, southwest of Alamogordo. His name was also in honor of the commander of Holloman Aeromedical Laboratory, Lieutenant Colonel Hamilton "Ham" Blackshear.[3][4]
Ham was born in July 1957 in French Cameroon,[5][6] captured by animal trappers and sent to the Rare Bird Farm in Miami, Florida. He was purchased by the United States Air Force and brought to Holloman Air Force Base in July 1959.[5]
There were originally 40 chimpanzee flight candidates at Holloman. After evaluation, the number of candidates was reduced to 18, then to six, including Ham.[7]: 245–246 Officially, Ham was known as No. 65 before his flight,[8] and only renamed "Ham" upon his successful return to Earth. This was reportedly because officials did not want the bad press that would come from the death of a "named" chimpanzee if the mission were a failure.[9] Among his handlers, No. 65 had been known as "Chop Chop Chang".[10][9]
Beginning in July 1959, the two-year-old chimpanzee was trained under the direction of neuroscientist Joseph V. Brady at Holloman Air Force Base Aero-Medical Field Laboratory to do simple, timed tasks in response to electric lights and sounds.[11] During his pre-flight training, Ham was taught to push a lever within five seconds of seeing a flashing blue light; failure to do so resulted in an application of a light electric shock to the soles of his feet, while a correct response earned him a banana pellet.[12]
While Ham was the first great ape, he was not the first animal to go to space, as there were many other types of animals that left Earth's atmosphere before him. However, none of these other animals could provide the significant insight that Ham could provide. One of the reasons that a chimpanzee was chosen for this mission was because of their many similarities to humans. Some of their similarities include: similar organ placement inside the body and having a response time to a stimulus that was very similar to that of humans (just a couple of deciseconds slower). Through the observations of Ham scientists would gain a better understanding of the possibility of sending humans into space.[8]
On January 31, 1961, Ham was secured in a Project Mercury mission designated MR-2 and launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida, on a suborbital flight.[1][12]: 314–315 At the time of the flight Ham was only a three and a half year old chimpanzee. He was fairly young but he was more than prepared for this mission. He had eighteen months of rigorous training, and even if something were to go wrong,[13] Ham's vital signs and tasks were monitored by sensors and computers on Earth.[14] The flight did not go one hundred percent as they had planned. The parameters for the altitude and the speed of this mission were supposed to be a precise 115 miles (185 kilometers) from launch and with speeds topping out at 4,400 miles per hour (7,081 km/h). In reality the spacecraft carrying Ham reached an altitude of over 150 miles (241 kilometers) and speeds topping out at over 5,000 miles per hour (8,046 km/h). These couple of mishaps led to even more problems for Ham and his capsule during their return to Earth. Ham ended up landing over 130 miles from where he was predicted to land. He was extracted from the water by a helicopter before he could drown.[8] The capsule suffered a partial loss of pressure during the flight, but Ham's space suit prevented him from suffering any harm.[12]: 315 Ham's lever-pushing performance in space was only a fraction of a second slower than on Earth, demonstrating that tasks could be performed in space.[12]: 316
Ham's capsule splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean and was recovered by the USS Donner later that day.[12]: 316 His only physical injury was a bruised nose.[14] Ham however, did not seem to be troubled by his injury and appeared enthusiastic to be back home. He did become slightly agitated by all the press and pictures. This was because people at the time did not understand how hard missions like these are on the mind and body.[8] His flight was 16 minutes and 39 seconds long.[15] During this flight, Ham even experienced weightlessness for around six and a half minutes. He was able to fight through the extreme pressure of weightlessness, g force, and speed. Through all these challenges, Ham still had the ability to perform all his tasks correctly, and even to the similar standard he set on Earth. This was extremely promising news for the scientists observing Ham during the mission. The purpose of this mission was to see if humans would be able to perform all the tasks that needed to be done while in space. By the end of the mission, it not only showed that humans can perform tasks nearly as well in space as on Earth, but that they also have a good chance of making it back home alive. They were able to see that even with all the mishaps that occurred with Ham and his flight he was still able to come home relatively safe. However, there still needed to be research on the long-term effects caused by time in space on the body.[13]
The results from his test flight led directly to Alan Shepard's May 5, 1961, suborbital flight aboard Freedom 7.[16]
Ham retired from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1963.[17] On April 5, 1963, Ham was transferred to the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. where he lived for 17 years[7]: 255–257 before joining a small group of chimps at North Carolina Zoo on September 25, 1980.[18]
Ham suffered from chronic heart and liver disease.[17] On January 19, 1983, at age 26, Ham died.[19] After his death, Ham's body was given to the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology for necropsy. Following the necropsy, the plan was to have him stuffed and placed on display at the Smithsonian Institution, following Soviet precedent with pioneering space dogs Belka, and Strelka. However, this plan was abandoned after a negative public reaction.[20] Ham's skeleton is held in the collection of the National Museum of Health and Medicine, Silver Spring, Maryland,[6] and the rest of Ham's remains were buried at the International Space Hall of Fame in Alamogordo, New Mexico. Colonel John Stapp gave the eulogy at the memorial service.[21]
Ham's backup, Minnie, was the only female chimpanzee trained for the Mercury program. After her role in the Mercury program ended, Minnie became part of an Air Force chimpanzee breeding program, producing nine offspring and helping to raise the offspring of several other members of the chimpanzee colony.[7]: 258–259 She was the last surviving Astro-chimpanzee and died at age 41 on March 14, 1998.[7]: 259
Research involving primates comprises only 0.3% of all non-human research, and chimpanzees comprise 5% of those subjects.[27] Chimpanzees are closely related to humans and are often used in research settings. Typically, chimpanzees are used for biomedical research. This includes research on infectious diseases to cognition or behavior.
Chimpanzees are very social animals, so relocating them to research facilities can be distressing. It is crucial that chimpanzees are allowed social interaction with other chimpanzees as well as other forms of enrichment. Without social interaction in the early stages of life, chimpanzees can experience issues with sexual and maternal behavior and social interactions with other chimpanzees raised in captivity with their mothers.[27]
Although chimpanzees are excellent subjects for research, they can pose some issues. They are unlike other highly used animals in research, like rodents, pigs, or dogs. They have incredible strength and intellect while being larger than typical research subjects. They cannot easily be restrained, so researchers have worked on getting chimpanzees to cooperate on their own terms.
Researchers implement three typical processes when using chimpanzees in research: habituation, desensitization, and positive reinforcement.[27] Habituation is used to decrease fears in the chimpanzees. For example, if the chimpanzee must be transported, their carrier may be left in their enclosure. This would allow the chimpanzee to acclimate to this new object and be more comfortable when transported. This can apply to all tools used in research, like cotton swabs or syringes. However, these are not left in their habitats due to safety reasons. If habituation did not reduce a chimpanzee's fearful reaction, desensitization would be used. This is primarily used for phobias. Instead of being only introduced to the object, the chimpanzee must elicit a desired response to the object perceived as threatening. The main goal of desensitization is changing a negative response to a neutral or positive reaction. Positive reinforcement is done to help solidify the actions or responses a chimpanzee gives. These processes help chimpanzees become comfortable around general research equipment and personnel.
Primates are well known for their high cognitive and emotional function. This is one reason some believe that scientific testing on primates is unethical. Primates have shown they have similar mental skills to humans, like problem-solving, math, and memory. Similarly, they experience emotions like happiness, sadness, and anxiety. Chimpanzees have even shown signs of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to scientific research.[28] One of the main concerns regarding ethics is the sourcing of primates. Most are stolen from the wild and sold. They are then shipped out to various locations. This transportation process is very stressful for the animal because of the small crates and lack of easy access to food and water. Studies have shown that it can take months for the animals' physiological systems to return to normal, and the research they undergo further stresses their bodies.[28] Most countries have banned chimpanzees from scientific research in Europe, and there is continuing pressure to end all use of primates.[28]
In the case of Ham, he was seen as a space hero. However, Ham faced many unethical situations. Ham was sold to the United States Air Force for $457 in 1959.[29] From there, Ham was assessed and trained for his space flight. One test Ham faced was that of decompression chambers which simulated pressure changes corresponding to altitude changes of 35,000 to 150,000 feet.[30][failed verification] He was strapped into a seat that locked him in place with a metal loop around his neck daily. Before his flight, Ham had electrodes placed under the skin and an 8-inch rectal thermometer inserted.[30] Due to a valve malfunction, the Redstone rocket delivered thrust higher than intended.[31] The anomaly triggered the emergency escape rocket and subjected Ham to 17g's of acceleration.[31] The jettison of the spent escape rocket also caused the retro rocket pack to be prematurely jettisoned.[31] The lack of the retro rocket caused the capsule to reenter the atmosphere with excessive speed.[31] Ham was subjected to 14.7 g's during reentry.[31] The capsule was damaged during splashdown and settled deeper in the water than designed.[31] Ham experienced a vast number of other issues during and after his flight. He was chosen to fly because of his agreeable nature, but Ham was not the same after the flight.[original research?] He would become agitated when the press approached him and panic when his handler would try to situate him for photos.[32]: 316, 576 Some famous images show him smiling in his capsule, which would appear as though he was happy. Yet chimpanzees smile out of fear, not happiness.[citation needed]
