History of the Jewish community of Kingston upon Hull, England
Kingston upon Hull, on England's East Coast was, by 1750, a major point of entry into Britain for traders and migrants,[1][2][3] second only to London for links to the continent.[4] Around then, a few Jews from German and Dutch cities lodged and settled in Hull.[5][6][7] Selling jewelry and dealing goods in the thriving port and market town, they maintained contacts with Europe, London, and many other – particularly Northern – towns. The small community produced its own institutions and leaders, which were tested by anti-Jewish sentiment, and later by an influx of East-European refugees.[5][8]
Communal efforts to support the arrival of Jews – mostly bound for America – encouraged some to stay, who then thrived particularly well in retail trades, and grew to be a community of over 2,500.[5][9] Although probably never more than 1% of the area population, by the end of the twentieth century the Jews of Hull made an impact on the life of the city, and some became known in the broader world.[10] Among the sons and daughters of the Jews of Hull (as well as many Lord Mayors and Sheriffs of Hull) were three Fellows of the Royal Society,[11] the founder of the world's largest furniture maker,[12] numerous doctors and lawyers, as well as actress Dame Maureen Lipman.[13] See List of Jews from Kingston-upon-Hull.
Former Western Synagogue, Linnaeus Street, Hull, a Grade II listed building[14]
Culture
As elsewhere, Jews in Hull gathered for Hebrew rites, and to make arrangements for kosher meat,[15] in hastily opened synagogues (see Synagogues, below). The East-European Ashkenazim and Dutch Sephardim Jews intermarried, thus uniting early rival congregations.[16] Family, business and institutional links with Jewish communities in London and other towns were always important.[17] As they were largely excluded from society in Britain as in Europe, the Jews of Hull were for a time mostly poor,[18] and their livelihoods were made via pawnbroking, dealing in valuables, jewelry, and later, silver and gold work, watch and clockmaking, as well as importing goods. Prosperity brought better synagogues, improved access to kosher provisions, and wider charitable, civic and professional activity.[5]
Newcomers fleeing Russian oppression came via North Sea and Baltic ports, skilled as tailors, drapers, cobblers, cabinetmakers, market traders and travelers. Established English and German Jews assisted those struggling in lodgings and terraces near the docks, as tensions and growing families spawned multiple synagogues.[5][19] Jewish life in Hull came to reflect the restrained Litvak observance and easternYiddish of the old Grand Duchy of Lithuania,[20][21] a culture wiped out by the Tsars, Nazis and Soviets.[22][23] More refugees were added by two World Wars. The severe Hull Blitz, and the drama of the State of Israel, furthered communal spirit, as did local Jewish entertainers.[24][25][26]
Jewish life in Hull grew in the bustling Old Town,[56] perhaps 40 people in 1793, 60 in 1815, and 200 in 1835, with a few trading out in Beverley, York, Scarborough and Lincolnshire towns.[57][46] A move west, around the arterial Hessle and Anlaby Roads, and also Beverley Road, centred on Porter Street and the upmarket Coltman Street.[58][59][60][61] The proportion of new young immigrants was always high,[62] from mid-century settling around Osborne Street,[63] growing the community to over 300 by 1851,[42] 550 in 1870, and 2,000 by 1900.[64] These families also progressed out along the same thoroughfares, accelerated by wartime bombing. The old housing and shops of Hull were decimated by the Luftwaffe,[65] even before the era of slum clearance. Motorcars enabled more Jews to reside in the western suburbs outside the City – Anlaby and Kirk Ella, as well as Willerby, Hessle and Ferriby.
After the war Hull-born Jews predominated, the area community peaking at 2,500 to 3,000, including some unlisted at synagogue or census,[50][66] not counting the small, linked community in Grimsby across the Humber.[67][35] Jews were barely 1% of the City's population,[68] or the wider suburbs. Assimilation, relocation, and emigration have since taken their toll,[30] most leaving for London, Manchester, Leeds,[69][70][71][37] and Israel, with now 200 or less in the Hull area, mainly older people in recent years.[36][72][73]
Close by, the large wool-producer Meaux Abbey,[83][84][85][86] bought estates indebted to these Jews,[83][79][87] and borrowed from them for construction,[83] whilst also developing the Hull river-mouth as a major centre,[84][88][89] for wool-merchants from England and Europe.[90][91][92] Thus it is plausible that the early development of Hull was funded by Jews. Nevertheless, unlike a community in Newcastle up to the year 1234,[93] nothing is known of any Jews resident in the early port of Hull.
The first known arrival is of Israel Benjamin in 1734, claiming to be a convert, who later died in Leeds.[103][42] Thereafter, at a time of persecution in Europe,[104][105][106] it is documented that Jews came into Hull from Germany, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, Poland and the Baltic, bound for large Northern towns or London, some claiming to be converts.[107][6][108][109]Merchants came from other English ports, for Hull's Napoleonic eraNaval Prize Court.[2] Traders settled around the Holy Trinity Church marketplace,[20] being in effect legally free in Hull to set up business;[110] Jews ran many stalls and shops there until the late 1960s.[56][72][111]
In 1766, Isaac Levy of Church Lane was the first recorded resident, founding one of many dynasties of jewelers and watchmakers, with others soon in the lanes off Marketplace;[5] located there was the equestrian statue of William III, for the 1788 Protestant Accession centenary, decorated with an elegant crown,[112] by Aaron Jacobs, jeweller and silversmith, forbear of synagogue presidents and clockmakers.[113] As some diversified into market bazaars and general trading, there were Jewish barbers (Abraham Levis, 1791), cobblers (Michael Levy, 1812), tailors (Henry Levy, 1812) and cabinet-makers (Henry Meyer, 1826).[114] In 1822 Joseph Levi was a "quil and pencil merchant," and Samuel Lazarus a hatmaker.[115] In 1831 Joseph Jacobs ran a coffee house,[115] and in 1834 Baruchson and Fawcett were importers and dealers in cigars.[115]
Advancement
Moses Symons, bullion dealer and watchmaker, was a Navy Agent, and in 1810 a founder member of the Humber Lodge of Freemasons,[116] which later had synagogue president and silversmith Elias Hart as its Master mason.[117]
Philanthropist Bethel Jacobs (1812–69), son and son-in-law to community leaders Israel Jacobs,[113] and Joseph Lyon (see Synagogues), became Master of the Humber Lodge and a Town Councillor, as well as synagogue president.[117][118] Returned from Leipzig studies to his father's Whitefriargate silversmiths and clockmakers, he oversaw a workshop as polymath and inventor.[119][120] A charismatic lecturer,[121] president of Hull Literary & Philosophical Society,[122] and the Mechanics' Institute, he led Hull at the 1851 Great Exhibition. Drawing the 1853 Association for the Advancement of Science to Hull, and after Victoria and Albert stayed at the (to be Royal) Station Hotel in 1854,[123] Bethel became Jeweller to Her Majesty.[124] Later Lieutenant of Hull Volunteer Rifle Corps,[125] and president of Hull's Royal Institution, he founded Hull College of Art in 1861.[126][127]
Simeon Mosely (1815–88), prominent dental surgeon, was synagogue president,[128] a Town Councillor, captain in the local volunteer brigade,[129] and 1864 founding Worshipful Master of the Kingston Lodge.[130][131][132][133][134] Longstanding mason Solomon Cohen (1827–1907), Sheffield-born clothier and synagogue president,[135] was a Hull Town Councillor for Marketplace ward from 1870,[136] later an Alderman, chairman of Hull School Board and president of Hull Guardian Society.[137][138][139]
In addition to the hope of a welcoming, gilded "New Jerusalem,"[162] emigration was often underpinned by informative correspondence with relatives.[159]Chain migration among Jews—specifically from Lithuanian towns via the Baltic to Northern English port – has been described.[31] Even so, passage to Hull was often booked through unscrupulous agents.[163][148][143] Husbands or eldest sons left first, and completed an arduous cross-border journeys by foot, cart, and train, to Hamburg and Bremen, or Baltic ports like Libau and Riga.[143][164][157][2][165][166]
Larger vessels on the Baltic traversed the dangerous Kattegat,[165] until in 1895 the Kiel Canal opened,[167] before the journey onward to Hull (or Grimsby, or Goole).[168][161][35] Carrying a little kosher food, such as herring with stale bread, migrants embarked onto cargo or cattle boats, for several cramped nights on straw pallets, wood boards or rolling decks, sometimes in befouled and unsafe conditions.[169][170][165][143][171][172] One gale in 1845 claimed 26 ships off Holland,[173] whilst the crew of a Hull-bound cargo steamer, having survived overnight lashed to the rigging, realized the deaths of all 16 passengers.[171] They were Polish Jews "chiefly in needy circumstances," mostly travelling jewelers and families. Amongst the bodies was a mother and five children, and a man reportedly stood upright, holding an open prayer book in his extended hand.[171][173] Death and disease amongst the migrants was common.[172]
Some lost luggage or had no onward tickets, and sometimes most arrived destitute.[170][174][175][176] On landing many walked into the Old Town to temporary lodgings,[177] like Posterngate's Harry Lazarus Hotel,[178][179] (a grave name in Delhi Street cemetery).[180][181] Most proceeded west, by Osborne Street to Anlaby Road, busy with horse-drawn traffic, across to the segregated Emigrant Waiting Room.[145][182][183][180] Built in 1871 by the North Eastern Railway, a kosher kitchen and washing rooms were later added;[56][177] now a listed building, it is currently (Hull City AFC the) Tigers Lair pub.[184] Behind, Platform 13 of Paragon Station took extra-long Monday or Wednesday trains, bound for Leeds and Liverpool;[165][2][170][161] London, Southampton and Glasgow were also common destinations.[143] From 1885 the new Alexandra Dock had a water-side railway hall, in use until 1908–9.[170][185]
Staying or moving on
Whilst most migrants from the "Old Country" were transitory through Hull, many stayed (intentionally or otherwise) for days, weeks, or for years.[186][152][42][187][188][189] Often, young men lodged temporarily with Jewish families in narrow lanes and terraced streets, borrowing money to work as ragged hawkers, later succeeding as jewelers and watch-dealers.[42][190][138][191] Frequently, illegal marriages occurred among the migrants.[192][193] For some who stayed, their grown children eventually continued the journey, like Benjamin Hart (born Hull 1869),[194] who sailed for America in 1912, but was lost on the Titanic.[195] He placed both his wife and their young daughter, Eva Hart, into a life-boat; she lived to be 91 years old, possibly the last survivor who remembered the Titanic disaster.[196][197]
Charities and clubs
A large number of active Hull Jewish societies were founded, with branches of many national and some international associations, all with officers and committees drawn from the community. A number are discussed here, with many others now known only from book or newspaper references.[198][199][54][200][201][better source needed] Charity fundraising was central to the social scene for many years.[202][203][204][205][206]
Meeting need
Living in a major port, Hull's Jewish community has a history of charity both to residents, and to transient and settling immigrants.[5][207][208] The Philanthropic Society of 1848 was early among many voluntary agencies, running soup kitchens and clothing shelters, giving financial relief to indigents and travellers.[209][199] In 1854 there was a collection for poor Jews in Palestine, and women were aided by the Ladies Hebrew Benevolent Society of 1861.[210][199] In 1869, general subscription funds were initiated for destitute, sick, and dying immigrants, and for the resident poor in winter.[176][211] In the twentieth century, other groups included Hull Jewish Blind Society and an Orphan Aid Society.[43]
Various charities had merged into the Hull Hebrew Board of Guardians in 1880, which then had 1,646 recipients.[212][213][199] A hundred years or so later it was renamed Hull Jewish Care,[214] with an elders home on Anlaby Road from the 1950s until 2013.[46][215][216] In 1909 John Symons had left £20,000 to establish a home for incurables and the poor of Hull (see List of Jews from Kingston upon Hull, Civic leaders).[42][217] Charles Jacobs, and his son Lord Mayor AK Jacobs (see List of Jews from Kingston upon Hull, Civic leaders), created by bequest the Jacobs Homes for the elderly, on Askew Avenue.[218][219]
Social
The Hull Hebrew Literary & Debating Society was funded in 1895 for readings and music.[220] The Jewish Girls Club was founded in 1900, and The City Club, Wright Street was founded in 1901.[199] The Hull Judeans of Lower Union Street,[51] founded 1919,[221] later part of the Maccabi Association, organised sports such as cricket, football, table-tennis and swimming,[222][223][224] whilst for elders the Hull Jewish Friendship Club began in the mid-20th century.[216] The Jewish (ex-serviceman's) Institute at 208 Anlaby Road, later Henry's nightclub, served numerous communal functions, as did the Parkfield Centre from 1973, later a Sikh Temple, behind the Carlton Cinema, Anlaby Road.[43][54][225]
Religious
By the 1930s, one communal burial society (Chevra Kadisha) was run by the several synagogues, as was the Hull Board of Shechita, for the organised provision of kosher food.[207][54] The synagogues are also constituted as charities.[226][227] See Synagogues.
Political
The Hull B'nai B'rith men's and women's lodges and youth organisation provided links with other communities including Israel,[43] whilst the Hull Jewish Representative Council after the Second World War managed political issues,[228][216][54] later publishing Hull's Jewish Watchman newsletter.[229]
Fruit-machine manufacturer Jack Lennard,[230] founded the Hull Council for Soviet Jewry,[72] and the Wilberforce Council for Human Rights,[231] as well as the Hull Jewish Archive.[232]
Synagogues
Pre-20th century
A reference to a synagogue demolished in 1700, situated on the narrow Dagger Lane in the Old Town, has been discredited.[233][234][97][45][235]
In 1780, the year of the Gordon Riots, a mob sacked a Catholic chapel on Posterngate, which was nearly opposite Dagger Lane;[236] this was rebuilt and rented, as a "neat and convenient" synagogue for 25 to 30 worshippers.[237] In 1809, a larger rival was founded at 7 Parade Row (later demolished for Prince's Dock),[16] by the respected and affluent Joseph Lyon (c.1765–1812) of Blackfriargate, pawnbroker, slopman (clothier) and silversmith. Lyon funded Samuel Simon as minister (see Rabbis).[238]
In 1825 Solomon Meyer, pawnbroker and merchant (of Hull and Sheffield), and Israel Jacobs, jeweler and goldsmith (of Hull and Scarborough), as synagogue presidents, led Posterngate and Parade Row to amalgamate into the Hull Hebrew Congregation, 7 Robinson Row (off Dagger Lane),[16] which was consecrated 1827.[239][19] Paid for by the Great London Synagogue and by mortgage, the new shul had 100 seats,[240] and a covered passage from the narrow cobbled street.[241][5][56][242] Rebuilt under the leadership of Bethel Jacobs c. 1851–1852, in Grecian-style with stained glass,[243] it seated 200 men and 80 women in the gallery, but by 1900 it was overcrowded.[66]
20th century
Foundation stone to Hull's Western Synagogue
Over 200 years, tensions amongst congregations came and went peacefully, except for occasional synagogue scuffles.[5][244][245][246][247] It was conflict with newcomers that led established families in 1902 to build the Western Synagogue for over 600, on Linnaeus Street along Anlaby Road; it was new-built in Byzantine style,[198] the architect BS Jacobs, son of Bethel.[248][249][250][14] The remainder of Jews from Robinson Row relocated in 1903, as Hull Old Hebrew Congregation, to an Osborne Street new-build,[251] which was by then the main Jewish area. With adorned entrances and later facilities, it seated 350 men, and 350 women above.[252][253][254][56][255][256][257]
About 1870 Russian Jews gathered off School Street, in what was in 1887 consecrated as "Hull Central Hebrew Congregation," Waltham Street.[258][46][259] Some joined Osborne Street in 1903, the rest in 1914 founded Cogan Street synagogue, refurbishing the neoclassical Salem Congregational Chapel, which had held 950.[260][261][54][262] In 1928 a rabbinical dispute erupted in the press over bones in its crypt, only re-buried in 1946 after the Cogan Street shul was bombed out in 1940.[263][264][265][266] The Central Congregation moved to West Parade, and in 1951 to 94 Park Street (formerly Alderman Cogan Girls' School) closing in 1976 to merge with Linnaeus Street.[266][262]
Osborne Street shul was also destroyed in the 1941 Blitz but restored after the Second World War.[252] It was sold in 1989 and later became part of the Heaven and Hell nightclub.[41][270] The congregation merged with that of Linnaeus Street, taking new premises in Pryme Street, Anlaby,[271][41] which were consecrated in 1995.[272]
21st century
As of 2021 the active synagogues are Hull Hebrew Congregation (Ashkenazi Orthodox) – in Pryme Street Anlaby;[273][274] and the ReformNe've Shalom, which opened in 1992 at Willerby, twenty-five years after the Reform Congregation's formation.[275][276] Through the efforts of community leader and historian Jack Lennard,[232] Linnaeus Street shul is a listed building, mentioned by Pevsner,[277] now an office.[14]
Rabbis
Salis Daiches,[278] who was from a Lithuanian dynasty of Rabbis,[279] served Hull to 1907;[280] he was later the leading Rabbi in Edinburgh, and published the recently-reprinted Aspects of Judaism (1928).[281][282] Rabbi Mordechai Schwartz, in Hull since 1920, published sermons,[283] and in 1926, the anti-Darwinian Faith and Science.[284] Schwartz was involved in a major dispute over Cogan Street synagogue.[264] In 1931 Rabbi Samuel Brod (arrived Hull 1898, d.1938) published a book of articles on the Talmud.[285]
Rabbi Louis Miller, father of New York's Rabbi Alan Miller (see Notable people), was minister of the Hull Western Synagogue and headmaster of its Hebrew School from 1920–30.[286][287] Eliezer Simcha Rabinowitz BA was from a rabbinical line,[288] and as Hull's Minister in 1953, became the first communal Rabbi of Hull (1956–59), and later, of Cape Town and Manchester. Rabbi Chaim Joshua Cooper MA Ph.D. (1917–99), born in London, was renowned for his intellect as Hull's communal Jewish leader from 1960, active into the 1990s.[289][290]
Cantors and synagogue officers
Samuel Simon was the earliest minister, serving from the 1820s to 1866. Simon was also a shochet (ritual slaughterer) and mohel (circumciser); he was later known as the alter rebbe (old reverend).[291] Shul secretary and Minister Rev. Isaac Hart taught at the school around 1870.[292][189][293] Abraham Elzas, who was educated in Holland and well-traveled, was a minister as well as master of the Hebrew school, and a mason. He also published translations of several books of the Bible.[294][295]
Highly regarded ministers remembered included Revs. Harry Abrahams and Judah Levinson of Osborne Street;[296][290] and Revs. Joshua Freedberg, David Hirsch, and Hyman Davies of Linnaeus Street.[249][287]
As elsewhere, each synagogue had a sequence of not only ministers,[4] but also presidents, vice-presidents, treasurers and secretaries.[49] Some individuals and families have featured in these roles for decades – at Linnaeus Street, the Rosenstons and Conrad Segelman,[297] and at Osborne Street Harry Shulman.[298] Nevertheless, it was often the modest shammes (caretaker, beadle), who was the most familiar face, such as latterly at Linnaeus Street, Harry Westerman.[249][299]
Ritual baths
The first ritual bath for Jewish women (mikvah) outside London may have existed from 1845 in Hull; certainly in 1850 one opened on Trippett Street, superseded in 1866 by a facility on George Street, and in 1919 by one at a local nunnery altered for the purpose, in use into the 1980s.[300][301] There is a mikvah at Pryme Street Synagogue,[302] finished in 2010.[303]
Cemeteries
Hull has five known Orthodox cemeteries, and a recent Reform one, with 2,500 burials in all,[181] discounting an unsupported claim of a mediaeval Jewish cemetery.[304]
From c.1780, a small plot at West Dock Terrace (later "Villa Place") saw burials until the last (of Joseph Lyon) in 1812. George Alexander,[4] community leader and synagogue president, silversmith and coin dealer, and the Levy family then opened a Hessle Road site,[305] which was in use until 1858. It sits next to the landmark 1895 Alexandra Hotel,[306][307] with Star of David overglazings marking a once-Jewish area,[308] it holds Israel Jacobs,[113] and Barna(r)d Barna(r)d, jeweller, watchmaker and Navy Agent (d.1821), "buried with honour".[181][115]
In East Hull is the 1858 larger Delhi Street site, with the earliest graves lost to a 1941 German bomb.[181] Expanded c. 1900 it had a pre-burial hall and served Linnaeus Street and Osborne Street shuls. In 2002 vandals damaged 110 graves and smashed another 80 in 2011.[181][309] The cemetery contains five Commonwealth war graves of Jewish service personnel, one from the First World War and four from the Second World War.[310]
In 1935 the Osborne Street congregation sought space at Marfleet Lane;[41] buried there is synagogue secretary Phineas Hart (d. 1952 age 80),[298] who helped destitute immigrants; it also contains a Commonwealth war grave of Signalman Benedict Korklin, who died in the Second World War.[311]
The Central Congregation established in 1889 Ella Street Cemetery, in the Avenues area.[312] It is now the main Orthodox cemetery, one grave is of Annie Sheinrog headmistress (d.1985 age 94, see Schools).
Since 1975, the Reform Congregation has a small site in Anlaby.[313][181]
Schools
In 1826 the Robinson Row shul had a makeshift school-room, and by 1852, 40 boys and girls were in a rebuilt facility there, learning Hebrew, English and arithmetic.[314][315] In 1838, there was also a free school for the poor.[314] Due to the work of Philip Bender, Rev. Isaac Hart and others,[315][292][316][189] schooling for boys and girls (which was segregated by gender) developed further, in West Street by the 1870s,[317] and separate institutions were established in Osborne Street by 1887.[318][319][251] A girls school was started in 1863,[320] and with infants, it took in 200 pupils in 1900;[321] under headmistress Miss Annie Sheinrog, this long continued,[51][322] through to wartime evacuation in Swanland, and closure in 1945.[323][324]
From 1870 on, boys state-schooling took hold,[325] supplemented by early morning or evening communal Hebrew School, attached to the larger synagogues.[326][327][198] The surviving Sunday morning cheder at Linnaeus Street,[54] for boys and girls, was supplemented around 1966 by evening classes at Kirk Ella School, and soon relocated there.[328] Latterly it was run at the Parkfield Centre, and lastly at Pryme Street synagogue,[329] before closing around 2010. Michael Westerman was the last headmaster.[322]
The Jews of Hull often report their home as, for example, an "historic and welcoming city,"[13] which has shown "maximum tolerance and understanding to religious minorities."[331] Ironically, Edward I, who persecuted England's Jews up to their expulsion in 1290,[332] granted Hull's charter as "King's Town".[333][334]Anti-Semitism has a long history in England,[335][336][337] and in Hull.
Religious persecution
In 1769, a local pamphlet claimed that the Wandering Jew of Jerusalem – a cobbler condemned for spitting in the face of Jesus – had arrived in Hull. No chains could contain him, and he never aged, as he awaited the Second Coming.[338] Since the expulsion of Jews from England, such myths shaped how Jews were perceived,[339][340] leading up to the Evangelical call for the Conversion of Jews, promoted by Hull's famed William Wilberforce.[341][342][343][344][345] Arrivals to the port, (as elsewhere) were proffered Christianizing meetings and pamphlets in Yiddish.[346] There was an active mission in Hull throughout the 19th century.[347][348][349][350][351][352]
An 1833 petition in Hull viewed emancipation of the Jews as a threat to the Christian Sabbath.[353] When Sir Isaac Goldsmid stood to be MP for nearby Beverley in 1847, the Hull Packet saw "a radical jew" and "an anti-christian movement".[354][355] However, at that time, the editor of the Hull Advertiser,[356] was campaigning against such religious prejudice.[357][358]
Attacks on Jewish graves in Hull continue from the past,[359] into the 21st century (see Cemeteries).[181][309]
Economic
In the early years, Jews in Hull found settled work primarily with other Jews or in self-employment.[5] In 1838, bill-poster Michael Jacobs was summarily dismissed and accused of theft by a Dr. Johnson, allegations dismissed at court.[360] A peddler in 1841 was racially abused, assaulted and threatened with a knife over a financial dispute,[361][362] although attacks on Jews in the street recurred for various motives.[111][363][364][365][366] Later, domination of some trades and Trade Union involvement caused local resentment.[367][368][369][370][268] Similarly, the propensity of sabbath-observant Jews to trade or wish to trade on Sundays was an issue.[371][372]
In 1832, Jewish leaders in Hull were confusingly accused in print of "an offensive tax" on meat.[373] For years local papers aired crude stereotypes,[374][375][376] highlighting Jews as litigious money-lenders,[377][378] or mocking them as comical disputants;[379][380][381] they routinely regurgitated London "column-fillers," such as any Jew accused of dishonesty.[382][383][384][385]
Political
There was popular and political support in Hull for the emancipation of Jews from their legal restrictions.[386][387] Nevertheless, the first apparently Jewish Mayor of Hull,[18] was both a target of an acerbic political lampoon, which focused on his race, countenance, demeanour, intellect and loyalties,[388] and of more subtle taunting, about missionary conversion.[389]
Hostility to Jews in the wake of Eastern European immigration led to the Aliens Act, with effective cessation of arrivals in 1914.[390][391] First World War xenophobic riots, worst in Hull,[392] were directed at Germans,[393][394] but also fell on Jews[395][396][397][398] including those in Hull.[392][399] In 1915, Rev. Isaac Levine of Cogan Street synagogue was beaten as a spy, dragged to a policeman by a drunk – who was himself imprisoned for five months.[366] Hannah Feldman, past Lady Mayoress, was also a victim.[2] Many families anglicised their German-sounding names at this time.[400][398]
The touching letters of Marcus Segal, who was killed in 1917, from the trenches to his Hull-born mother, evoke life at the front.[423][424]
Memorial gate to Edward Gosschalk at Hull's former Western Synagogue
About 50 Hull Jewish men died for their country in the Great War; many more fought but survived.[425][426][427] A few of the communal tragedies were the deaths of Corporal (Cpl) Harry and Private (Pte) Marcus Silverstone, who were killed weeks apart on the Somme in 1916.[428] Pte Max Kay (Chayet) of the Royal Army Medical Corps was born in Minsk, lived on Hessle Road, and died of wounds in Mesopotamia in 1916; he was mentioned in dispatches, and is remembered on the Basra Memorial.[429][430]
In January 1917, Cpl Harry Furman (aged 20) rescued his pal Pte Simon Levine (aged 21), before both died of their wounds.[431] Later that year, Solomon Ellis (previously Moshinsky) was killed, six months before his brother Nathan.[428] Louis Newman was killed in France in 1917, three months before his brother Charles died at Ypres.[432] Abraham and Joseph Sultan also both died in the war.[433] Lieutenant (Lt) Edward M. Gosschalk, (aged 33) whose father had been Sheriff of Hull, died in 1916.[434][435]
Sergeant (Sgt) Jack Aarons was wounded in 1916, and received the Military Medal in 1918; he lived until 1976.[436] Pte. Louis Shapero also received the Military Medal for conspicuous bravery in rescuing a wounded officer whilst under fire.[437][438][439][440]
The first Jew to serve in the Royal Flying Corps was Wing Commander Joseph Kemper MBE; born in Hull,[441] he was one of five Jews who served in both the RFC, and in the RAF in the Second World War.[442][443]
Home front
In addition to the stress of having sons who were away at war, there was a surge of xenophobia at home (see Anti-Semitism, Political).[393] Bombing by German Zeppelins in Hull hit Jewish traders amidst others in Churchside marketplace,[444] and homes such as that of Harris Needler's family.[445][446]
The wartime economy offered a boom in outfitting for the military,[447] and even airplane work and naval salvage.[448][449] The influenza pandemic,[450] and a severe post-war depression eventually tipped many of the same businesses into bankruptcy.[451][452][453]
Local families, Jewish and Christian, initially took in 63 Kindertransport children, of whom at least 22 were brought up in Hull.[458][40][455][459][460][296][461] Among them was Rudolf Wessely, father of psychiatrist Regius Prof. Sir Simon Wessely.[54][462] Another was Fred Barshak, who had witnessed Kristallnacht in Vienna; like many he later found that his whole family had been killed.[463][43][229][464][465] A violin prodigy, he studied law at Oxford and became a property developer;[466][467] his children are comedian Aaron,[468] and composer/film-maker Tamara.[469]
As other British Jews, the community in Hull dreaded a Nazi invasion, with good cause. The truth about the genocide later called the Holocaust was no secret;[470][471][472] and, it turned out, German plans to round up and kill people in Britain had been drawn up.[473] Professor Theodor Plaut, at Hull University 1933–1936, was one of the listed Jewish targets.[474][475]
Three synagogues were damaged, two badly (see Synagogues), amid a City Centre "moonscape of bombsites, craters and broken buildings".[254] The old housing and shops around Osborne Street and along Anlaby and Hessle Roads were later subject to slum clearance; of the streets that completely disappeared,[491] some had been Jewish strongholds – Lower Union Street, Paradise Place, Day Street; in this district, truly, "little, if any of old Hull is still standing."[65]
Perhaps half the population of Hull was homeless or evacuated at some point,[477] with Jewish children being sent away, many to non-Jewish homes, around East Yorkshire and beyond.[492][403][296] Hull and Birmingham were sites of Government "operational research" into children and the civilian impact of bombing, led by Lord (Solly) Zuckerman and J. D. Bernal.[493][475][494][477] The shock of the Blitz, the newsreels from Belsen, and the jubilation of VE Day,[495] were followed by events in British Mandate Palestine (see Anti-Semitism).[414]
War service
There were at least 18 Hull Jewish service fatalities, and many more decorated survivors, in the Second World War.
Captain (Capt) Isidore Newman MBE CdG MdeR (1916–44), in 1938 a teacher at Middleton Street Boys, was a radio operator for SOE; betrayed on his second mission in occupied France, he was murdered by SS at Mauthausen, Austria 1944.[496][497][498]
Major (Maj) Wilfred "Billy" Sugarman MC (1918–76, son of Israel Sugarman, a tailor),[499] was part of the first wave of troops ashore on D-Day at Normandy, and he sustained multiple grenade wounds but led men onward.[500][501] He went on to see more action in Egypt and Burma,[502] and after the war ended, he was a Hull headmaster.[296] His younger brother Harold was, by a family account,[503] a cyanide pill-carrying decoder and operative in Italy/Austria, who was pressed to stay on past 1946 as a ski-instructor.
Of the six Rossy Brothers (see Businesses), anti-aircraft Gunner Cyril Rosenthall and mechanic Aircraftsman Ronnie were both killed in 1941,[504][505] whilst Ernie returned from Dunkirk and Burma.[503] Morris Miller had died fighting in the Spanish Civil War in 1938,[506] before his brother Lance-Corporal (LCpl) Alfred Miller, who fell with the Royal Artillery in 1940.[507]
Others who died were Flying Officers Harold Rathbone,[508] and Bernard Tallerman;[509] Lt David Queskey;[510] Flight Sergeants Calman Bentley,[426] and Gerald Cobden;[511] Sgt William Hare;[512] Co. Quarterm'r Sgt David Juggler;[513] Lance Sjt. Cyril Bass;[514] Cpl Mark Moses;[515] Ptes Harry Garfunkle,[516] and Harold Harris – "table tennis champion of Hull";[517] Signalman Benedict Korklin;[311] and Bdr Fred Rapstone.[518]
Czech-born doctor Friedrick Schulz escaped a concentration camp, and joined the RAMC, but in 1949, at the age of 29, committed suicide, which was the same day his father was murdered in Mauthausen. Friedrick is buried in Hull Northern Cemetery.[519]
Leslie Kersh spent three-and-a-half years in a Japanese POW camp.[502]
Hull's Cpl Bernard Levy was amongst the first to see Bergen-Belsen. He did not speak of his experiences for 70 years.[520][521] From the Hull Northern clothing family, he founded and ran the High and Mighty outside menswear UK and international retail chain; he died in 2022 age 96.[522][523]
The Hull Association of Jewish Ex-Serviceman and Women continued to march annually in Whitehall into the 21st century.[524]
Leading Jewish families in Hull at one time were mostly retailers, and some craftsmen, of precious wares and branded timepieces.[42] Still-noted Victorian clockmakers are Bethel Jacobs and Isaac Lavine,[239] also Bush, Carlin, Friedman, Lewis, Maizels, Marks, Shibko, Solomon, Symons and Wacholder.[526][5] There were once many other jewelers (see Early history),[42][527] later only a few like watchmaker PS Phillips,[528][529] Chappells (became Conleys / Paragon),[530] and Segals, which survives (est. 1919).[531][532] Synagogue president Louis Rapstone sold antiques in the town,[530][533][534] as did TV personality David Hakeney.[535]
Mid-century trading businesses, like Lewis & Godfrey's fancy bazaar of the 1850s, Magner Bros' fancy goods dealers & importers, and Haberland & Glassman's 1867 grocers, became major merchant firms toward 1900.[536][537][239] Dumoulin & Gosschalk of Finkle Street were classic "Port Jews," who were hide, wool and produce importers. Victor Dumoulin (Flemish b.Lille 1836) became Hull's Imperial Ottoman Vice-Consul,[538] later consul for the Austrian Empire, and chairman of the Chamber of Commerce (see List of Jews from Kingston upon Hull, Civic leaders).[539][540][541] Major Jewish egg importers included Max Minden & Co, and Fischoff;[542][543][544] as well as Saville Goldrein (father of Neville, see List of Jews from Kingston upon Hull),[545][546][547][548] Annis & Gordon,[549] and Cecil Krotowski.[550] Among grain importers was the Hull warehouse of the international Louis Dreyfus & Co.[551][552]
Solomon Cohen (see Early history) was a successful pioneer of ready-made clothing in Hull.[42] Tailors, mostly from Eastern Europe, were the leading trade by 1900:[540][564] Rosenston, Sadolfsky, Shalgoskie, Goldbard, Leshinsky, Kaplan, Rosenthal, Weinstein etc.;[43][239] later (AK) Jacobs,[565] and Lipman & Silver.[566] Many young women worked as seamstresses or tailor's finishers.[42] After the depressions of 1920–1, 1929–33, and the Second World War,[567][568] some clothiers survived – Levy's Northern,[569][570][571] Gersteins,[572] Premier Menswear,[573] Regal Tailors (Schultz),[574][575] and more.
Linked to Hull's prominence in importing and processing Baltic timber,[576] second to tailors in number were many small wood-workers and cabinet-makers, like Abraham Gutenberg of Osborne Street.[239] Similar work-shops spawned Lebus,[577] Paradies & Co sawmill,[578] Marks & Sugarman steam cabinet works (furniture, First War 'planes),[448][449] Zimmerman furniture stores,[579] East Riding Furniture Co,[580] and Arlington (Abrahams) bar/kitchen fitters.[581] Another major trade (using imported leather and wood) was clog- , slipper- and boot-making:[582] Rosen's slipper- and shoe-factory was a big employer;[583][584] John Harris and Furmans shoe-shops were well-known.[585][586][587]
Visible across the town in the post-war years were chains like Zerny's dry-cleaners, est.1892,[72][588][589][590] and Goodfellows supermarkets (Oppel).[72][591][592] Jewish tobacconists included several Vinegrads sweet shops, the family also ran pre-war wholesalers, and later radio shops.[593][594][595] Now-lost kosher bakers and butchers, delicatessens and fish-shops of old Osborne Street are often fondly remembered,[257] especially Freedman the baker,[257][20][596] and fryers Levine's,[54][431] and Barnett's.[20][431] Similarly recalled are many city names: Reuben barbers,[597] and Rossy Bros bookmakers (see Second World War – war service);[598] Segal's,[72] Shenker's,[530] and Sultan's curtains,[599] furriers Blooms, Blank, and Silver,[600][601] Goldstones wallpaper and paint,[602] Bennetts glass,[603][604] Couplands carpets,[605] and Myers wholesalers.[606] AK Jacobs had garages pre-war,[607] whilst Car Marks number-plates came later.[608] Actress Mira Johnson's gown shop House of Mirelle is still celebrated.[609][610]
^ abcdeEvans, Nicholas (2017). "The making of a mosaic: Migration and the port-city of Kingston upon Hull". In Starkey DJ (ed.). Hull: Culture, History, Place. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. pp. 144–77. ISBN978-1-78138-420-6.
^"ENORMOUS SUCCESS OF LOUIS GOULDEN (The Wizard of the Piano) And His Golden Serenaders". Hull Daily Mail. 19 May 1930.
^"LENA HYMAN, the popular Hull vocalist, sails to-day for a tour of South Africa". Hull Daily Mail. 7 July 1932.
^"MUSIC, DANCING TONIGHT .. LOUIS GOLD'S MONARCHS OF MELODY 8 to 12. Admission 2/6. EAST HULL BATHS SATURDAY, OCT. 21st DANCING to MAXWELL DANIELS and his BAND". Hull Daily Mail. 20 October 1950.
^ abcOppel, Elliot (2000). The history of Hull's orthodox synagogues and the people connected with them. Beverley: Highgate. ISBN0-948929-16-2. OCLC45305328.
^ abRubinstein, William D., ed. (2011). The Palgrave Dictionary of Anglo-Jewish History. London: Palgrave MacMillan. pp. 441–2. ISBN978-1-4039-3910-4.
^Wolf, Lucien (1888). The middle-age of Anglo-Jewish history (1290–1656). In Papers read at the Anglo-Jewish historical exhibition, Royal Albert Hall. London: Office of the Jewish Chronicle. pp. 56, 77–9.
^"Court of Common Council". The Times. 15 May 1830.
^ ab"ILL-TREATING A JEW .. William Robinson, Thomas Carrill, and John Lee, were summoned by Jacob Milerofsky, a jew, for throwing stones at him and breaking a quantity of glass which he was carrying .". Hull Packet. 23 May 1862.
^Hadley, George (1788). A new and complete history of the town and county of the town of Kingston-upon-Hull. Kingston upon Hull: T. Briggs.
^Margolis, Max L.; Marx, Alexander (1927). A history of the Jewish people. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America. pp. 665–724.
^"THE PERSECUTION OF THE JEWS. IMPORTANT MEETING IN HULL. .. by requisition to the Mayor .. Town Hall.. expressing sympathy with the persecuted Jews in Russia .". Hull Packet. 10 February 1882.
^"THE HULL JEWS AND THE RUSSIAN ATROCITIES .. great outrages .". Hull Packet. 3 February 1882.
^ abShapiro, Nathan (2013). The migration of Lithuanian Jews to the United States, 1880–1918, and the decisions involved in the process, exemplified by five individual migration stories. New York: Hofstra University.
^"RUSSIAN EMIGRANTS SUFFOCATED AT SEA .. After many weary days .. the agent packed all on a timber vessel .. to Hull .. fourteen young Jews were smuggled on a German steamship .". The Jewish Chronicle. 24 January 1896.
^ ab"Wreck of the Hull and Hamburg Archimedean steamer Margaret". Morning Chronicle. 5 November 1845.
^"The sweating system .. Isaac Smolenski landed at Hull, for America, without money for tickets". The Times. 25 May 1889.
^"Emigration and Immigration". The Times [ increased number of destitute Jewish arrivals in Hull etc ]. 28 May 1904.
^ ab"Hull .. steamers ply daily between Hull and Hamburg .. the greater part of them being in a destitute condition .. Chebrah Kadish .. to be supported by small monthly payments". Jewish Record. 15 October 1869.
^ abc"Hull Hebrew School [general report of immigration and settlement in Hull] [school under Rev Hart and J Symons] [ detailed account of star pupils Wolff, Isenberg, Casril, Feldman, Wacholder, since Philip Bender ("Benny") arrived ]". Jewish Record. 8 September 1871.
^"Jewish Food .. proceeds of the concert .. in aid of .. Society for the Relief of Local Jewish Poor .. £14 4d .. with £7 Is donations .". Hull Daily Mail. 5 April 1892.
^"FOR THE JEWISH CHARITIES .. Concert at the Lecture Hall". Hull Daily Mail. 14 December 1894.
^"JEWISH CHARITY DANCE Members of the Hull Jewish Orphan Aid Society, assembled at the New York Ballroom .. in aid of the Norwood Orphanage". Hull Daily Mail. 23 October 1946.
^"HULL JEWS' APPEAL FOR ORPHANS .. dinner in the Guildhall given by the Hull B'Nai B'Rith Lodge to launch an appeal .". Hull Daily Mail. 25 March 1949.
^"HULL JEWISH GALA SWIMMING FINDING TEAM TO SEND TO OLYMPIC GAMES .. aim of the British Maccabi Association". Hull Daily Mail. 30 August 1937.
^"Hull Judeans' Club .. so active in sports, social, and cultural circles in pre-war days, has recommenced its activities". Hull Daily Mail. 1 July 1944.
^"AN ANCIENT SYNAGOGUE AT HULL .. there had been but two synagogues during the last hundred years. Recently I have had the privilege of perusing some hundreds of MSS. compiled some 200 years since, among which was one giving a description of the Jewish synagogue as it appeared up to the .". Hull Packet. 1 September 1882.
^ abcdeHistory & Directory of East Yorkshire. Preston: Bulmer & Co. 1892.
^Stubley, Peter (1991). SERIOUS RELIGION AND THE IMPROVEMENT OF PUBLIC MANNERS: THE SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF EVANGELICALISM IN HULL. 1770–1914. PhD Thesis. University of Durham. p. 281.
^"Solomon Marcus Schiller-Szinessy, 1820-1890: First Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature at Cambridge," Transactions of the Jewish Historical Society of England". Transactions of the Jewish Historical Society of England. 21: 155. 1968.
^"DISGRACEFUL CONDUCT AT THE JEWISH SYNAGOGUE .. At the Police-court .. Mr Abraham Barnett .. for assaulting .. Mr Jacob Alper .". Hull Packet. 21 April 1865.
^"SYNAGOGUE SCENE. STRANGE EPISODE COGAN ST. SPLIT COMMUNITY? Stormy scenes have taken place Cogan-street, Hull, result of dispute between two sections .". Hull Daily Mail. 13 July 1925.
^ ab"The Hull Jewish community have secured .. Osborne Street for a new synagogue to accommodate all classes of worshippers, school for the education of Jewish boys". Sheffield Evening Telegraph. 8 January 1902.
^"BAN ON SYNAGOGUE Jews Forbidden to Pray in It Following Discovery of Family Vaults .. under the Cogan St Synagogue, Hull, Rabbi Schwartz has issued an order forbidding Jews to use". Daily Mirror. 20 February 1928.
^ ab"BONES IN SYNAGOGUE. HULL RABBI'S ACTION NOT SUSTAINED. JEWISH CHURCH LAW CASE. LONDON .. The Chief Rabbi, Dr Hertz, who recently visited Hull, has not sustained the action of the local Rabbi who placed ban upon worship .". Hull Daily Mail. 15 May 1928.
^"NOTICE OF INTENDED REMOVAL OF HUMAN REMAINS AND MONUMENTS OR TOMBSTONES FROM THE SYNAGOGUE PREMISES .. NOTICE OF INTENDED REMOVAL OF HUMAN REMAINS AND MONUMENTS OR TOMBSTONES FROM THE SYNAGOGUE PREMISES (FORMERLY A METHODIST CHURCH), COGAN-ST .". Hull Daily Mail. 24 August 1946.
^ ab"Hull [ account of visit of Chief Rabbi Herman Adler to school .. star pupil master J. Susman .. Rev Hart, Solomon Cohen etc in attendance ]". Jewish Record. 11 June 1869.
^"Alderman Sir David Salomons Bart [ letter from Hull to congratulate]". Jewish Record. 12 November 1869.
^"The Wandering Jew .. appearance in Italy of a mysterious person, whom the multitude asserted was the Wandering Jew". Hull Packet. 11 October 1814.
^Hoeveler, Diane Long (2005). "Charlotte Dacre's Zofloya: The Gothic Demonization of the Jew". In Spector, S. A. (ed.). The Jews and British Romanticism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 165–178. ISBN978-1-137-06285-7.
^"AMONG THE JEWS .. world would never be converted until the Jews first were. The conversion the Jews is the key the conversion of the world". Hull Advertiser and Exchange Gazette. 10 September 1867.
^"THE JEWS .. lecture .. by the Rev C. Godfrey Ashwin .. on .. superstitions of the Jews, and the means of removing them". Hull Packet. 5 March 1869.
^"CHRISTIANITY AMONGST THE JEWS .. annual meeting of the Hull Branch of the Society for Promoting Christianity amongst the Jews was held at the Royal Institution". Hull Packet. 13 October 1882.
^"CURIOUS SELECTIONS .. Elizabeth, Jew convert, daughter of Rabbi Moses, was allowed two-pence a day, a consideration for being deserted by her family, on account of changing her religion .". Hull Advertiser and Exchange Gazette. 6 August 1796.
^"LONDON SOCIETY FOR PROMOTION OF CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE JEWS. MR. ISAAC WILSON, Bookseller, Lowgate, Hull, has received for Sale, copies of SERMONS Preached for this Society .". Hull Advertiser and Exchange Gazette. 21 December 1811.
^"CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE JEWS .. baptisms of Jews .. Jews of every rank life were now confessing Christ". Hull Advertiser and Exchange Gazette. 16 November 1832.
^"JEW Society .. a collection was made in aid of .. the British Society for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Jews". Hull Packet. 7 November 1862.
^"Conversion of a Jewess in the Hull Penitentiary [ in report by Rev John Scott, criticized in letters to Jewish Record ]". Jewish Record. 12 November 1869.
^"VANDALISM AT HULL JEWISH CEMETERY DURING THE past few years vandalism at the Western Hebrew Congregational cemetery grounds has increased rapidly". Hull Daily Mail. 29 March 1950.
^"Hull Police Wednesday, a hard case". Northern Star and Leeds General Advertiser. 24 March 1838.
^"In the Police Court". Hull Packet. 8 October 1841.
^"HULL POLICE COURT .. drunkenness and disorderly conduct .. the prisoners were charged with assaulting a German Jew and also with wilful damage .. on Christmas night .". Hull Packet. 29 December 1865.
^"THE MURDEROUS OUTRAGE ON A JEW AT HULL". Yorkshire Post and Leeds Intelligencer. 30 December 1881.
^"THE ASSAULT ON A HULL JEW AT SCARBOROUGH". Hull Packet. 9 January 1885.
^"ALIENS v. ENGLISHMEN .. labour by foreigners. Take the tailoring and shoemaking trades. There was a very large amount of this sort of work done in the district. The Polish Jews had taken the trades, and very few Englishmen are now employed. The Jews worked for less, and gradually .". Hull Daily Mail. 10 February 1886.
^"LOCK OUT OF HULL JEWISH TAILORS .. meeting of the Jewish Tailors Union, in Hull". Leeds Mercury. 8 April 1899.
^"YORKSHIRE ASSIZES. LIBEL ON A HULL JEWISH TRADER". Yorkshire Post and Leeds Intelligencer. 20 November 1913.
^"HULL JEWS AND SUNDAY WORK. A number of Jews were summoned at the Hull Police Court on Monday for following their employment on Sundays. Mr Twits, the Stipendiary Magistrate. pointed out that it they came to England they out .. to obey the English .". Hull Daily News. 25 March 1899.
^"Cumberland's new Comedy The JEW .. Mr Wilkinson was induced to undertake that long and difficult character SHEVA (the Jew) [moneylender]". Hull Advertiser and Exchange Gazette. 17 January 1795.
^Pamphlets (14 February 1801). "Says Dick .. (with a laugh) .. ancestors ador'd calf! True, quoth the Jew, but then we're told This calf was made of gold; And thro' the world friend Dick, you'll find, Gold is the idol of mankind". Hull Advertiser and Exchange Gazette.
^"SHAMEFUL CASE OF JEWISH DUPLICITY IN HULL". Hull Packet. 21 March 1873.
^"ISAAC GORDON WORSTED. The Court of Appeal to-day dismissed with the appeal Isaac Gordon, the money lender, in the case of Gordon v Street". Hull Daily Mail. 28 June 1899.
^"MONEY-LENDER GETS HIS 60 PER CENT .. Justice Coleridge heard action brought H. Blumberg. Sheffield". Hull Daily Mail. 17 February 1915.
^"A JEW'S PRACTICAL JOKE .. a Jew, named Alexander, brought an action against another Jew, named Jacobs .. to recover a small sum .". Hull Packet. 10 January 1862.
^"Abraham Isaac and Jacob. Scene in a Dublin Synagogue". Hull Daily Mail. 4 October 1893.
^"Moses and Jacob. A bedroom episode". Hull Daily Mail. 13 September 1895.
^"LONDON .. one of the Commissioners of the Stamp-Office came to Portsmouth, in consequence of an information again Mr. Grecian Wolfe, Jew, for having counterfeit stamps in his possession .". Hull Advertiser and Exchange Gazette. 28 February 1795.
^"JEWISH BREACH OF PROMISE. .. Benjamin Goldstein, the son of a Highbury furrier". Hull Daily Mail. 14 May 1910.
^"THE JEW'S COAT. Two Jews living in London were summoned Colchester on Tuesday for alternately using the same season ticket". Hull Daily Mail. 15 February 1922.
^"CHARGE AGAINST MRS V. ISAACS. LONDON". Hull Daily Mail. 7 July 1919.
^"Imperial Parliament. House of Lords. June 9. Jews. .. The Marquis of Westminster presented several petitions .. from Hull, Bristol and other places". Sun (London). 10 June 1834.
^"To the Electors of the Borough of Kingston-Upon-Hull .. Civil and Religious Liberty requires yet to be fully vindicated by the admission of Jew to Parliament .. Edwin James". Sun (London) – Thursday 0. 6 November 1856.
^Whiting, Henry John (1858). Portraits of Public Men. Hull. pp. 1–4, 115.((cite book)): CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^"MR MOSS'S MANDAMUS .. be thrashed until they are converted! It is needless to say that the missionary, dis- trusting this method' of conversion, declined to avail himself .. it has been reserved for Mr Ald. Moss to apply the forcible method .". Hull Packet. 11 December 1857.
^ abLevinson, Norma (2006). Memories of Swanland. Hull History Centre Jewish Community Archive.((cite book)): CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^"ANTI-JEWISH RIOTERS SET FIRE TO A FACTORY [ in Liverpool .. windows smashed on Hessle Road Hull ..] ; THREATS NO SOLUTION COURT TOLD [ threats to smash windows of Vinegrad's Modern Radio ]". Hull Daily Mail. 4 August 1947.
^"Prison for men who broke window at Hull". Hull Daily Mail. 5 August 1947.
^ abBurkitt, Nicholas Mark (2011). British Society and the Jews: a study into the impact of the Second World War era and the establishment of Israel, 1938–1948. PhD Thesis. Exeter: University of Exeter.
^"More anti-Jewish demonstrations". The Times. 6 August 1947.
^"HUMOUR FOR JEWISH SOLDIER .. Much satisfaction will be felt among the local Jewish community at the announcement of the award the Military Medal to Private Louis Shapero, East Yorkshire Regiment, for conspicuous bravery in rescuing wounded officer whilst under fire .". Hull Daily Mail. 25 August 1916.
^".. Mrs Shapero lost her husband a about a year. Six sons and one daughter survive. Of the sons three are in the army, Private Louis, who won the Military Medal for Bravery .". Hull Daily Mail. 23 February 1917.
^"HULL TAILORS. ARMY WORK FOR THE LOCAL TRADERS. Hull master tailors have received a War Office contract for 1.500 soldiers' uniforms per week .. bv 28 local master tailors". Hull Daily Mail. 27 January 1915.
^ ab"Cabinet Maker Foreman and Designer. Apply Marks and Sugarman 46 Osborne Street". Hull Daily Mail. 27 June 1916.
^ ab"WAR TIME SALVAGE SALE THE YORKSHIRE COAST .. Among the larger buyers were .. Messrs. Sugarman, furniture manufacturers. Hull". Yorkshire Post and Leeds Intelligencer. 12 August 1918.
^"HULL INFLUENZA EPIDEMIC. HIGH DEATH RATE IN 1918–19". Hull Daily Mail. 18 December 1919.
^"[ bankruptcies ] .. Marks and Sugarman, at 46, Osborne-street, Hull, has been dissolved .". Hull Daily Mail. 27 April 1922.
^"RECORD IN BANKRUPTCIES .. 1922 has established record .". Hull Daily Mail. 3 December 1923.
^"SALES BY AUCTION. Re ISRAEL COBDEN, in Bankruptcy. TO TAILORS, CLOTHIERS, AND OTHERS". Hull Daily Mail. 9 March 1922.
^"COMFORTS FOR THE FORCES. HULL JEWISH COMMUNITY'S AID TO THE FUND". Hull Daily Mail. 28 May 1940.
^ abcAtkinson, D. (2017). "Trauma, Resilience and Utopianism in World War II Hull". In Starkey, David (ed.). Hull: Culture, History, Place. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. pp. 238–69. ISBN978-1-78138-419-0.
^"Louis Dreyfus and Co .. the well-known grain merchants, has been converted into a private company with a capital of £500,000. In Hull, where the firm has large interests, it is understood no change .". Hull Daily Mail. 27 January 1941.
^"TAILORING IN HULL .. Society of Hull Jewish Qualified Tailors". Hull Daily Mail. 30 September 1898.
^Jacobs, A. K. (12 September 1927). "Hull's Leading Tailor". Hull Daily Mail.
^"HULL POLICE CLOTHING .. The tender for 500 great coats .. for the Hull City Police .. given to Messrs. Lipman and Silver, Charterhouse-lane. Hull". Hull Daily Mail. 4 March 1924.
^"LONDON AND NORTHERN CLOTHING CO., 38. MARKET-PLACE, HULL .. GENTS' RAINCOATS and OVERCOATS .". Hull Daily Mail. 23 December 1907.
^"MEN'S SUITS – FOR – SERVICE YOUTHS' SUITS Double Breasted BOYS' SUITS from 6 NORTHERN CLOTHING Co. Ltd. 67, King Edward St". Hull Daily Mail. 26 April 1928.
^"SAWDUST IGNITED .. on the premises occupied by H. Paradies and Co., sawmillers". Hull Daily Mail. 15 December 1926.
^"STILL LEADING! SIDNEY ZIMMERMAN HULL'S LEADING FURNISHER, THE RENOWNED FURNISHING HOUSE OF HULL". Hull Daily Mail. 1 October 1926.
^"HULL AND EAST RIDING FURNISHING Co., 63, 65, & 67, ANLABY ROAD, HULL. OUR EXTENSIVE NEW PREMISES, ERECTED ESPECIALLY FOR THE FURNITURE TRADE". Hull Daily Mail. 14 December 1899.
^"Philosophy". Arlington Design. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
^"MARRIAGE AT LINNÆUS-STREET SYNAGOGUE .. Miss Kay Goldman .. with Joseph Rosen, son of Mr C. Rosen, slipper manufacturer, of Roper-street". Hull Daily Mail. 20 April 1912.
^"MEN wanted with experience in shoe factory – Apply C. Rosen Sons, Ltd. 283-5 Hessle-Rd". Hull Daily Mail. 11 January 1949.
^"all leather soles, superior .. JOHN HARRIS Ltd. 298, HESSLE BD., 96–97, PORTER ST., 95, HOLDERNESS RD., and 323, HEDON RD". Hull Daily Mail. 15 January 1932.
^"Look! 50,000 pairs of ladies shoes at Barnett Furman Church Side Market and 172 Holderness Rd. Come early to avoid the crush". Hull Daily Mail. 6 June 1935.
^"BORIS FURMAN'S NEW SHOE SHOP TOMORROW .. 23, HOLDERNESS ROAD .. 19, ANLABY ROAD. 42 & 44, PORTER STREET. 76, CHARLES STREET". Hull Daily Mail. 27 February 1931.
^"TRIBUTE TO MR FRED ZERNY Funeral of Hull Firm's Founder". Hull Daily Mail. 14 August 1937.
^"CANADIAN GOODS CAN BE OBTAINED AT THE FOLLOWING SHOPS: .. GOODFELLOWS STORES, 90, The Quadrant, Cottingham Road (Tel. 8759)". Hull Daily Mail. 16 March 1939.
^"MR L. VINEGRAD, 557, Hessle-rd.—Wanted, Lady Assistant for Tobacco and Confectionery Business". Hull Daily Mail. 6 January 1909.
^"Young Iady with experience in Wholesale Business .. Vinegrad and Co., Wholesale Tobacconists, Confectioners, and General Merchants, 47, Porter St". Hull Daily Mail. 28 February 1916.
^"RADIO Service at Its best. Dally van collection and delivery Moderate charges – Vinegrad's Modern Radio, 566. Hessle Rd. .. 27 Holderness Rd". Hull Daily Mail. 18 October 1948.
^"REUBEN'S Hairdressing Salons (Ladies' and Gent's.) 18, Cholmley St; Perms, machine and machineless". Hull Daily Mail. 30 October 1947.
^"NEVER ON SUNDAY! .. But Ken Walsh, who runs Hull-based independent bookmakers Rossy Brothers, wants to stay open on Sundays". Daily Mirror. 3 August 1995.
^"OPEN shop at SULTANS .. For WOOLLENS \ Established 1880". Hull Daily Mail. 4 December 1950.
^"BLOOMS BROOK STREET HULL Famous for Fabrics and Furs". Hull Daily Mail. 22 April 1932.
^"FOR FINER FURS CONSULT S. BLANK THE ACTUAL FURRIER. 239, ANLABY RD". Hull Daily Mail. 3 November 1947.
^"GOLDSTONE'S FOR ARTISTIC WALLPAPERS. H.GOLDSTONE & SONS, SHOWROOMS, 16, ANLABY ROAD". Hull Daily Mail. 21 September 1926.
^"GREENHOUSE GLASS & DUTCH LIGHTS BENNETT'S GLASS WAREHOUSES 50, SPRING BANK 116, HOLDERNESS ROAD". Hull Daily Mail. 30 March 1938.
^Henderson, Carrie (2018). Miriam Bibbero Johnson: Family, Philanthropy, Fashion: A Biography of Hull's Actress-Entertainer (House of Mirelle). Hull: House of Mirelle UK. ISBN978-1-9993090-0-8.
