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((Short description|Techniques to change plant traits))
((refimprove|date=November 2023))
'''Plant breeding''' started with [[sedentism|sedentary]] [[agriculture]], particularly the domestication of the first [[agriculture|agricultural]] plants, a practice which is estimated to date back 9,000 to 11,000 years. Initially, early human farmers selected food plants with particular desirable characteristics and used these as a seed source for subsequent generations, resulting in an accumulation of characteristics over time. In time however, experiments began with deliberate hybridization, the science and understanding of which was greatly enhanced by the work of [[Gregor Mendel]]. Mendel's work ultimately led to the new science of [[genetics]]. Modern plant breeding is applied genetics, but its scientific basis is broader, covering [[molecular biology]], [[cell biology|cytology]], [[systematics]], [[physiology]], [[pathology]], [[entomology]], [[chemistry]], and [[statistics]] ([[biometrics]]). It has also developed its own technology. Plant breeding efforts are divided into a number of different historical landmarks.

==Early plant breeding==

===Domestication===
[[Image:Feature2originmap600.png|right|thumb|400px|This map shows the sites of domestication for a number of crops. Places where crops were initially domesticated are called [[centers of origin]]]]
((main|Domestication))
((main|History of agriculture))

Domestication of plants is an artificial selection process conducted by humans to produce plants that have more desirable traits than wild plants, and which renders them dependent on artificial usually enhanced environments for their continued existence. The practice is estimated to date back 9,000-11,000 years. Many crops in present-day cultivation are the result of domestication in ancient times, about 5,000 years ago in the [[Old World]] and 3,000 years ago in the [[New World]]. In the [[Neolithic]] period, domestication took a minimum of 1,000 years and a maximum of 7,000 years. Today, all principal [[food]] crops come from domesticated varieties. Almost all the domesticated plants used today for food and agriculture were domesticated in the [[centers of origin]]. In these centers there is still a great diversity of closely related wild plants, so-called [[crop wild relatives]], that can also be used for improving modern cultivars by plant breeding.

A plant whose origin or selection is due primarily to intentional human activity is called a [[cultigen]], and a cultivated crop [[species]] that has evolved from [[Wilderness|wild]] populations due to selective pressures from traditional [[farmer]]s is called a [[landrace]]. Landraces, which can be the result of natural forces or domestication, are plants or [[animal]]s that are suited to a particular region or environment.

In some cases, such as [[rice]], different subspecies were domesticated in different regions; [[Oryza sativa | Oryza sativa subspecies indica]] was domesticated in [[South Asia]], while [[Japonica rice | Oryza sativa subspecies japonica]] was developed in [[China]].

For more on the mechanisms of domestication, see [[Hybrid (biology)]].

===Columbian Exchange===
((main|Columbian exchange))
((see also|Economic botany))
Humans have traded useful plants from distant lands for centuries, and [[plant collecting|plant hunters]] have been sent to bring plants back for cultivation. Human agriculture has had two important results: the plants most favoured by humans came to be grown in many places and (2) gardens and farms have provided some opportunities for plants to interbreed that would not have been possible for their wild ancestors. [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]]'s arrival in America in 1492 triggered unprecedented transfer of plant resources between [[Europe]] and the [[New World]].

==Scientific plant breeding==
((More citations needed section|date=February 2024))
[[Image:Gartons-1902-Catalogue.jpg|thumb|right|Garton's catalogue from 1902]]

[[Thomas Fairchild (gardener)|Thomas Fairchild]] (? 1667((spaced ndash))10 October 1729) was an English gardener, "the leading [[nurseryman]] of his day", working in London.<ref>Wulf, 6 (quoted)</ref>  He corresponded with [[Carl Linnæus]], and helped by experiments to establish the existence of [[sex in plants]]. In 1716-17 (the cross made in summer 1716, the new plant appearing the next spring) he was the first person((debatable|date=November 2021)) to scientifically produce((clarification needed|What does "scientifically produce" mean?|date=November 2021)) an [[artificial hybrid]], ''[[Dianthus|Dianthus Caryophyllus barbatus]]'', known as "Fairchild's Mule", a cross between a [[Sweet william]] and a [[Carnation pink]].<ref>((cite web|author=The Gentle Author|title=Thomas Fairchild, Gardener of Hoxton|url=http://spitalfieldslife.com/2011/07/02/thomas-fairchild-gardener-of-hoxton/|work=Spitalfields Life|date=2 July 2011|accessdate=16 November 2015))</ref>

[[Gregor Mendel]]'s experiments with plant [[hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] led to his [[Mendelian inheritance|laws of inheritance]]. This work became well known in the 1900s and formed the basis of the new science of [[genetics]], which stimulated research by many plant scientists dedicated to improving crop production through plant breeding.

However, successful commercial [[plant breeding]] concerns began to be founded from the late 19th century. [[Gartons Agricultural Plant Breeders]] in England was established in the 1890s by John Garton, who was one of the first to cross-pollinate agricultural plants and commercialize the newly created varieties. He began experimenting with the artificial cross pollination firstly of cereal plants, then herbage species and root crops and developed far reaching techniques in plant breeding.<ref>((Cite web|url=http://www.agri.ankara.edu.tr/fcrops/1289__PBARTSCIENCE.doc|title=Plant breeding|access-date=2013-10-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021184545/http://www.agri.ankara.edu.tr/fcrops/1289__PBARTSCIENCE.doc|archive-date=2013-10-21|url-status=dead))</ref><ref>Obituary, Warrington Examiner, 11 February 1950</ref>

William Farrer revolutionized wheat farming in Australia with the widespread release in 1903 of the fungus resistant "Federation" strain of wheat, which was developed as a result of his plant breeding work over a period of twenty years using Mendel's theories.<ref name="Farrer-ADB">((cite web|url=http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/farrer-william-james-6145|title=Farrer, William James (1845–1906)|year=1981|publisher=[[Melbourne University Press]]|pages=471–473|access-date=28 December 2014|author=C. W. Wrigley|work=[[Australian Dictionary of Biography]]|volume=8))</ref>

From 1904 to World War II in [[Italy]], [[Nazareno Strampelli]] created a number of wheat hybrids. His work allowed Italy to increase crop production during the so-called "[[Battle for Grain]]" (1925–1940) and some varieties were exported to foreign countries, such as Argentina, Mexico, and China. Strampelli's work laid the foundations for [[Norman Borlaug]] and the [[Green Revolution]].

===Green revolution===
((main|Green Revolution))
In 1908, [[George Harrison Shull]] described [[heterosis]], also known as hybrid vigor. Heterosis describes the tendency of the progeny of a specific cross to outperform both parents. The detection of the usefulness of heterosis for plant breeding has led to the development of inbred lines that reveal a heterotic yield advantage when they are crossed. [[Maize]] was the first species where heterosis was widely used to produce hybrids.

By the 1920s, [[statistics|statistical]] methods were developed to analyze gene action and distinguish heritable variation from variation caused by environment. In 1933 another important breeding technique, [[cytoplasmic male sterility]] (CMS), developed in maize, was described by [[Marcus Morton Rhoades]]. CMS is a maternally inherited trait that makes the plant produce sterile [[pollen]]. This enables the production of hybrids without the need for labor-intensive [[detasseling]].

These early breeding techniques resulted in large yield increase in the [[United States]] in the early 20th century. Similar yield increases were not produced elsewhere until after [[World War II]], the [[Green Revolution]] increased crop production in the developing world in the 1960s. This remarkable improvement was based on three essential crops. First came the development of hybrid [[maize]], then high-yielding and input-responsive "[[Norin 10 wheat|semi-dwarf wheat]]" (for which the [[CIMMYT]] breeder N.E. [[Borlaug]] received the [[Nobel Peace Prize|Nobel prize for peace]] in 1970), and third came high-yielding "short statured rice" cultivars.<ref>((cite journal|author1=Kenji Asano |author2=Masanori Yamasaki |author3=Shohei Takuno |author4=Kotaro Miura |author5=Satoshi Katagiri |author6=Tomoko Ito |author7=Kazuyuki Doi |author8=Jianzhong Wu |author9=Kaworu Ebana |author10=Takashi Matsumoto |author11=Hideki Innan |author12=Hidemi Kitano |author13=Motoyuki Ashikari |author14=Makoto Matsuoka |year= 2011|title=Artificial selection for a green revolution gene during japonica rice domestication|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=108|issue=27|pages=11034–11039|pmid=21646530|doi=10.1073/pnas.1019490108|pmc=3131315|bibcode=2011PNAS..10811034A |doi-access=free ))</ref> Similarly notable improvements were achieved in other crops like [[sorghum]] and [[alfalfa]].

===Molecular genetics and bio-revolution===
Intensive research in [[molecular genetics]] has led to the development of recombinant [[DNA]] technology (popularly called [[genetic engineering]]). Advancement in biotechnological techniques has opened many possibilities for [[plant breeding|breeding]] crops. Thus, while mendelian genetics allowed plant breeders to perform genetic transformations in a few crops, molecular genetics has provided the key to both the manipulation of the internal genetic structure, and the "crafting" of new cultivars according to a pre-determined plan.

===DNA repair and recombination in crop improvement===

Most approaches to crop improvement, including conventional breeding, genome modification and gene editing, rely primarily on the fundamental processes of [[DNA repair]] and [[homologous recombination|recombination]].<ref name = Verma2020>Verma P, Tandon R, Yadav G, Gaur V. Structural Aspects of DNA Repair and Recombination in Crop Improvement. Front Genet. 2020 Sep 11;11:574549. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2020.574549. PMID: 33024442; PMCID: PMC7516265</ref>  Our current understanding of DNA repair and recombination mechanisms in plants was derived largely from prior studies in [[prokaryote]]s, [[yeast]] and animals, so that our present knowledge remains rooted in this history.<ref name = Verma2020/> This approach has led to gaps in our understanding of the basic processes of DNA repair and recombination in plants so that further progress in this area of plant research should contribute to significant crop improvement.

==See also==
* [[The breeding of strawberries]]
* [[Marker-assisted selection]]

==References==
((reflist))

==Further reading==
* Schlegel, Rolf (2007) Concise Encyclopedia of Crop Improvement: Institutions, Persons, Theories, Methods, and Histories (((ISBN|9781560221463))), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp 423

[[Category:Botany]]
[[Category:Plant breeding]]
[[Category:History of agriculture]]
[[Category:History of botany]]

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