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[[File:കൂടിയാട്ടത്തിലെസുഗ്രീവൻ.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Performer playing [[Sugriva]] in the [[Koodiyattam]] form of [[Sanskrit drama|Sanskrit theatre]]]]
[[File:Zoffany-Garrick and Pritchard in Macbeth.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Hannah Pritchard]] as [[Lady Macbeth]] and [[David Garrick]] as [[Macbeth (character)|Macbeth]] at the [[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane]] in April 1768]]

The '''history of theatre''' charts the development of [[theatre]] over the past 2,500 years. While performative elements are present in every society, it is customary to acknowledge a distinction between theatre as an [[art form]] and entertainment, and ''theatrical'' or ''performative'' elements in other activities. The history of theatre is primarily concerned with the origin and subsequent development of the theatre as an autonomous activity. Since [[classical Athens]] in the 5th century BC, vibrant traditions of theatre have flourished in cultures across the world.<ref>Banham (1995), Brockett and Hildy (2003), and Goldhill (1997, 54).</ref>

==Origins==
There is no conclusive evidence that theater evolved from ritual, despite the similarities between the performance of ritual actions and theatre and the significance of this relationship.<ref name=":0">Cohen and Sherman (2020, ch. 7).
</ref> This similarity of early theatre to ritual is negatively attested by [[Aristotle]], who in his ''Poetics'' defined theatre in contrast to the performances of [[sacred mysteries]]: theatre did not require the spectator to fast, drink the [[kykeon]], or march in a procession; however theatre did resemble the sacred mysteries in the sense that it brought purification and healing to the spectator by means of a vision, the ''theama''. The physical location of such performances was accordingly named ''theatron''.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' VI, 2.</ref>

According to the historians [[Oscar Brockett]] and Franklin Hildy, rituals typically include elements that entertain or give pleasure, such as [[costumes]] and [[masks]] as well as skilled performers. As societies grew more complex, these spectacular elements began to be acted out under non-ritualistic conditions. As this occurred, the first steps towards theatre as an autonomous activity were being taken.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (1968; 10th ed. 2010), ''History of the Theater''.</ref>

==European theatre==

===Greek theatre===
[[File:07Epidaurus Theater08.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The best-preserved example of a classical Greek theatre, the Theatre of [[Epidaurus]], has a circular ''orchêstra'' and probably gives the best idea of the original shape of the Athenian theatre, though it dates from the 4th century BC.<ref>Davidson (2005, 197) and Taplin (2003, 10).</ref>]]
((Main|Theatre of Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek comedy|Satyr play))
Greek theatre, most developed in Athens, is the root of the Western tradition; ''theatre'' is a word of Greek origin.<ref name=":0" /> It was part of a broader [[culture]] of theatricality and performance in [[classical Greece]] that included [[Athenian festivals|festivals]], [[Religion in ancient Greece|religious rituals]], [[Ancient Greece#Political structure|politics]], [[Ancient Greek law|law]], athletics and gymnastics, [[Music of ancient Greece|music]], [[Ancient Greek literature#Classical and Pre-Classical Antiquity|poetry]], weddings, funerals, and ''[[Symposium|symposia]]''.<ref>Cartledge (1997, 3, 6), Goldhill (1997, 54) and (1999, 20-xx), and Rehm (1992. 3).</ref>((efn|Goldhill argues that although activities that form "an integral part of the exercise of citizenship" (such as when "the Athenian citizen speaks in the Assembly, exercises in the gymnasium, sings at the symposium, or courts a boy") each have their "own regime of display and regulation," nevertheless the term "performance" provides "a useful heuristic category to explore the connections and overlaps between these different areas of activity" (1999, 1).)) Participation in the city-state's many festivals—and attendance at the [[Dionysia#City Dionysia|City Dionysia]] as an audience member (or even as a participant in the theatrical productions) in particular—was an important part of [[citizenship]].<ref>Pelling (2005, 83).</ref> Civic participation also involved the evaluation of the [[rhetoric]] of [[orators]] evidenced in performances in the [[Athenian law court (classical period)|law-court]] or [[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)|political assembly]], both of which were understood as analogous to the theatre and increasingly came to absorb its dramatic vocabulary.<ref>Goldhill (1999, 25) and Pelling (2005, 83–84).</ref> The [[theatre of ancient Greece]] consisted of three types of [[drama]]: [[tragedy]], [[Comedy (drama)|comedy]], and the [[satyr play]].<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 15–19).</ref>

[[Tragedy#Greek|Athenian tragedy]]—the oldest surviving form of tragedy—is a type of [[dance]]-drama that formed an important part of the theatrical culture of the city-state.<ref>Brown (1995, 441), Cartledge (1997, 3–5), Goldhill (1997, 54), Ley (2007, 206), and Styan (2000, 140).</ref>((efn|Taxidou says that "most scholars now call 'Greek' tragedy 'Athenian' tragedy, which is historically correct" (2004, 104).)) Having emerged sometime during the 6th century BC, it flowered during the 5th century BC (from the end of which it began to spread throughout the Greek world) and continued to be popular until the beginning of the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic period]].<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 32–33), Brown (1995, 444), and Cartledge (1997, 3–5).</ref>((efn|Cartledge writes that although Athenians of the 4th century judged [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]], and [[Euripides]] "as the nonpareils of the [[genre]], and regularly honoured their plays with revivals, tragedy itself was not merely a 5th-century phenomenon, the product of a short-lived [[Fifth-century Athens|golden age]]. If not attaining the quality and stature of the fifth-century 'classics', original tragedies nonetheless continued to be written and produced and competed with in large numbers throughout the remaining life of the [[Athenian democracy|democracy]]—and beyond it" (1997, 33).)) No tragedies from the 6th century and only 32 of the more than a thousand that were performed in during the 5th century have survived.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 15) and Kovacs (2005, 379).</ref>((efn|We have seven by [[Aeschylus]], seven by [[Sophocles]], and eighteen by [[Euripides]]. In addition, we also have the ''[[Cyclops (play)|Cyclops]]'', a [[satyr play]] by Euripides. Some critics since the 17th century have argued that one of the tragedies that the classical tradition gives as Euripides'—''[[Rhesus (play)|Rhesus]]''—is a 4th-century play by an unknown author; modern scholarship agrees with the classical authorities and ascribes the play to Euripides; see Walton (1997, viii, xix). (This uncertainty accounts for Brockett and Hildy's figure of 31 tragedies rather than 32.))) We have complete texts [[Extant literature|extant]] by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and [[Euripides]].<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 15).</ref>((efn|The theory that ''[[Prometheus Bound]]'' was not written by Aeschylus adds a fourth, anonymous playwright to those whose work survives.)) The origins of tragedy remain obscure, though by the 5th century it was [[institution]]alised in competitions (''[[agon]]'') held as part of festivities celebrating [[Dionysos]] (the [[Family tree of the Greek gods|god]] of [[wine]] and [[fertility]]).<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 13–15) and Brown (1995, 441–447).</ref> As contestants in the City Dionysia's competition (the most prestigious of the festivals to stage drama), playwrights were required to present a [[tetralogy]] of plays (though the individual works were not necessarily connected by story or theme), which usually consisted of three tragedies and one satyr play.<ref>Brown (1995, 442) and Brockett and Hildy (2003, 15–17).</ref>((efn|Exceptions to this pattern were made, as with [[Euripides]]' ''[[Alcestis (play)|Alcestis]]'' in 438 BC. There were also separate competitions at the [[Dionysia#City Dionysia|City Dionysia]] for the performance of [[dithyramb]]s and, after 488–7 BC, [[Ancient Greek comedy|comedies]].)) The performance of tragedies at the City Dionysia may have begun as early as 534 BC; official records (''didaskaliai'') begin from 501 BC, when the satyr play was introduced.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 13, 15) and Brown (1995, 442).</ref> ((efn|Rehm offers the following argument as evidence that tragedy was not institutionalized until 501 BC: "The specific cult honoured at the [[Dionysia#City Dionysia|City Dionysia]] was that of Dionysus Eleuthereus, the god 'having to do with [[Eleutherae]]', a town on the border between [[Boeotia]] and [[Attica]] that had a sanctuary to Dionysus. At some point Athens annexed Eleutherae—most likely after the overthrow of the [[Peisistratos (Athens)|Peisistratid]] tyranny in 510 and the democratic reforms of [[Cleisthenes]] in 508-07—and the cult-image of Dionysus Eleuthereus was moved to its new home. Athenians re-enacted the incorporation of the god's cult every year in a preliminary rite to the City Dionysia. On the day before the festival proper, the cult-statue was removed from the [[Greek temple|temple]] near the [[theatre of Dionysus]] and taken to a temple on the road to Eleutherae. That evening, after [[Animal sacrifice|sacrifice]] and [[hymn]]s, a torchlight procession carried the statue back to the temple, a symbolic re-creation of the god's arrival into Athens, as well as a reminder of the inclusion of the Boeotian town into Attica. As the name Eleutherae is extremely close to eleutheria, 'freedom', Athenians probably felt that the new cult was particularly appropriate for celebrating their own political liberation and democratic reforms" (1992, 15).)) Most Athenian tragedies dramatise events from [[Greek mythology]], though ''[[The Persians]]''—which stages the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] response to news of their military defeat at the [[Battle of Salamis]] in 480 BC—is the notable exception in the surviving drama.<ref>Brown (1995, 442).</ref>((efn|[[Jean-Pierre Vernant]] argues that in ''[[The Persians]]'' [[Aeschylus]] substitutes for the usual temporal distance between the audience and the [[Greek Heroic Age|age of heroes]] a spatial distance between the Western audience and the Eastern [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian culture]]. This substitution, he suggests, produces a similar effect: "The 'historic' events evoked by the chorus, recounted by the messenger and interpreted by Darius' ghost are presented on stage in a legendary atmosphere. The light that the tragedy sheds upon them is not that in which the political happenings of the day are normally seen; it reaches the Athenian theater refracted from a distant world of elsewhere, making what is absent seem present and visible on the stage"; Vernant and Vidal-Naquet (1988, 245).)) When Aeschylus won first prize for it at the City Dionysia in 472 BC, he had been writing tragedies for more than 25 years, yet its tragic treatment of recent history is the earliest example of drama to survive.<ref>Brown (1995, 442) and Brockett and Hildy (2003, 15–16).</ref> More than 130 years later, the philosopher [[Aristotle]] analysed 5th-century Athenian tragedy in the oldest surviving work of [[dramatic theory]]—his ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'' (c. 335 BC). [[Ancient Greek comedy|Athenian comedy]] is conventionally divided into three periods, "Old Comedy", "Middle Comedy", and "New Comedy". Old Comedy survives today largely in the form of the eleven surviving plays of [[Aristophanes]], while Middle Comedy is largely lost (preserved only in relatively short fragments in authors such as [[Athenaeus of Naucratis]]). New Comedy is known primarily from the substantial papyrus fragments of plays by [[Menander]]. Aristotle defined comedy as a representation of laughable people that involves some kind of error or ugliness that does not cause pain or destruction.<ref>[[Aristotle]], ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'': "Comedy is, as we said, a representation of people who are rather inferior—not, however, with respect to every [kind of] vice, but the laughable is [only] a part of what is ugly. For the laughable is a sort of error and ugliness that is not painful and destructive, just as, evidently, a laughable mask is something ugly and distorted without pain" (1449a 30–35); see Janko (1987, 6).</ref>

===Roman theatre===
((Main|Theatre of ancient Rome))
[[File:Altro lato della zona del pubblico.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Roman theatre in [[Benevento]], [[Italy]]]]
[[File:Wall painting - actor and two muses - Herculaneum (insula orientalis II - palaestra - room III) - Napoli MAN 9019.jpg|thumb|Actor dressed as a king and two muses. Fresco from [[Herculaneum]], 30-40 AD]]

Western theatre developed and expanded considerably under the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]]. The Roman historian [[Livy]] wrote that the Romans first experienced theatre in the 4th century BC, with a performance by [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] actors.<ref>Beacham (1996, 2).</ref> Beacham argues that Romans had been familiar with "pre-theatrical practices" for some time before that recorded contact.<ref>Beacham (1996, 3).</ref> The [[theatre of ancient Rome]] was a thriving and diverse art form, ranging from [[Roman festival|festival]] performances of [[street theatre]], nude dancing, and acrobatics, to the staging of [[Plautus]]'s broadly appealing situation [[Comedy (drama)|comedies]], to the [[high culture|high-style]], verbally elaborate [[Tragedy|tragedies]] of [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]]. Although Rome had a native tradition of performance, the [[Hellenization]] of [[Culture of ancient Rome|Roman culture]] in the 3rd century BC had a profound and energizing effect on Roman theatre and encouraged the development of [[Latin literature]] of the highest quality for the stage.

Following the expansion of the [[Roman Republic]] (509–27 BC) into several Greek territories between 270 and 240 BC, Rome encountered [[Theatre of ancient Greece|Greek drama]].<ref name="h43">Brockett and Hildy (2003, 43).</ref> From the later years of the republic and by means of the [[Roman Empire]] (27 BC-476 AD), theatre spread west across Europe, around the Mediterranean and reached England; Roman theatre was more varied, extensive and sophisticated than that of any culture before it.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 36, 47).</ref> While Greek drama continued to be performed throughout the Roman period, the year 240 BC marks the beginning of regular Roman drama.<ref name="h43"/>((efn|For more information on the ancient Roman dramatists, see [[:Category:Ancient Roman dramatists and playwrights|the articles categorised under "Ancient Roman dramatists and playwrights" in Wikipedia]].)) From the beginning of the empire, however, interest in full-length drama declined in favour of a broader variety of theatrical entertainments.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 46–47).</ref>

The first important works of [[Latin literature|Roman literature]] were the tragedies and comedies that [[Livius Andronicus]] wrote from 240 BC.<ref name="h47">Brockett and Hildy (2003, 47).</ref> Five years later, [[Gnaeus Naevius]] also began to write drama.<ref name="h47"/> No plays from either writer have survived. While both dramatists composed in both [[genres]], Andronicus was most appreciated for his tragedies and Naevius for his comedies; their successors tended to specialise in one or the other, which led to a separation of the subsequent development of each type of drama.<ref name="h47"/> By the beginning of the 2nd century BC, drama was firmly established in Rome and a [[guild]] of writers (''collegium poetarum'') had been formed.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 47–48).</ref>

The Roman comedies that have survived are all ''[[fabula palliata]]'' (comedies based on Greek subjects) and come from two dramatists: [[Plautus|Titus Maccius Plautus]] (Plautus) and [[Terence|Publius Terentius Afer]] (Terence).<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 48–49).</ref> In re-working the Greek originals, the Roman comic dramatists abolished the role of the [[Greek chorus|chorus]] in dividing the drama into [[episode]]s and introduced musical accompaniment to its [[dialogue]] (between one-third of the dialogue in the comedies of Plautus and two-thirds in those of Terence).<ref name="h49">Brockett and Hildy (2003, 49).</ref> The action of all scenes is set in the exterior location of a street and its complications often follow from [[eavesdropping]].<ref name="h49"/> Plautus, the more popular of the two, wrote between 205 and 184 BC and twenty of his comedies survive, of which his [[farce]]s are best known; he was admired for the [[wit]] of his dialogue and his use of a variety of [[Meter (poetry)|poetic meters]].<ref name="h48">Brockett and Hildy (2003, 48).</ref> All of the six comedies that Terence wrote between 166 and 160 BC have survived; the complexity of his plots, in which he often combined several Greek originals, was sometimes denounced, but his double-plots enabled a sophisticated presentation of contrasting human behaviour.<ref name="h48"/>

No early Roman tragedy survives, though it was highly regarded in its day; historians know of three early tragedians—[[Quintus Ennius]], [[Marcus Pacuvius]] and [[Lucius Accius]].<ref name="h49"/> From the time of the empire, the work of two tragedians survives—one is an unknown author, while the other is the [[Stoicism|Stoic philosopher]] [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]].<ref name="h50">Brockett and Hildy (2003, 50).</ref> Nine of Seneca's tragedies survive, all of which are ''fabula crepidata'' (tragedies adapted from Greek originals); his ''[[Phaedra (Seneca)|Phaedra]]'', for example, was based on [[Euripides]]' ''[[Hippolytus (play)|Hippolytus]]''.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 49–50).</ref> Historians do not know who wrote the only [[Extant literature|extant]] example of the ''fabula praetexta'' (tragedies based on Roman subjects), ''[[Octavia (play)|Octavia]]'', but in former times it was mistakenly attributed to Seneca due to his appearance as a [[Character (arts)|character]] in the tragedy.<ref name="h50"/>

In contrast to Ancient Greek theatre, the theatre in Ancient Rome did allow female performers. While the majority were employed for dancing and singing, a minority of actresses are known to have performed speaking roles, and there were actresses who achieved wealth, fame and recognition for their art, such as [[Eucharis (actress)|Eucharis]], [[Dionysia (stage artist)|Dionysia]], [[Galeria Copiola]] and [[Fabia Arete]]: they also formed their own acting guild, the ''[[Sociae Mimae]]'', which was evidently quite wealthy.<ref>Pat Easterling, Edith Hall: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vWzdX7Yqq7MC&dq=bassilla+actress+ancient&pg=PA301 Greek and Roman Actors: Aspects of an Ancient Profession] ((Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200530084855/https://books.google.se/books?id=vWzdX7Yqq7MC&pg=PA301&lpg=PA301&dq=bassilla+actress+ancient&source=bl&ots=X8iWcXkGt8&sig=ACfU3U38pMTl5m7M_sj-r4KvgXXUjx6G0Q&hl=sv&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj2odnG3szlAhXks4sKHXD6AdkQ6AEwDXoECAgQAQ#v=onepage&q=bassilla%20actress%20ancient&f=false |date=2020-05-30 ))''</ref>

===Transition and early medieval theatre, 500–1050===
((Main|Medieval theatre))
As the [[Western Roman Empire]] fell into decay through the 4th and 5th centuries, the seat of Roman power shifted to [[Istanbul|Constantinople]] and the [[Eastern Roman Empire]], today called the [[Byzantine Empire]]. While surviving evidence about Byzantine theatre is slight, existing records show that [[miming]], scenes or recitations from tragedies and [[comedy|comedies]], [[dance]]s, and other entertainments were very popular. Constantinople had two theatres that were in use as late as the 5th century.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 70)</ref> However, the true importance of the Byzantines in theatrical history is their preservation of many classical Greek texts and the compilation of a massive encyclopedia called the [[Suda]], from which is derived a large amount of contemporary information on Greek theatre.

From the 5th century, [[Western Europe]] was plunged into a period of general disorder that lasted (with a brief period of stability under the [[Carolingian Empire]] in the 9th century) until the 10th century. As such, most organized theatrical activities disappeared in [[Western Europe]]. While it seems that small nomadic bands travelled around Europe throughout the period, performing wherever they could find an audience, there is no evidence that they produced anything but crude scenes.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 75)</ref> These performers were denounced by the [[Catholic Church|Church]] during the [[Dark Ages (historiography)|Dark Ages]] as they were viewed as dangerous and pagan.

[[File:Roswitha of Gandersheim.jpg|left|upright=.8|thumb|[[Hrosvitha]] of Gandersheim, the first dramatist of the post-classical era.]]

By the [[Early Middle Ages]], churches in [[Europe]] began staging dramatized versions of particular biblical events on specific days of the year. These dramatizations were included in order to vivify annual celebrations.<ref name="Brockett_Hildy,76">Brockett and Hildy (2003, 76)</ref> Symbolic objects and actions – [[vestments]], [[altar]]s, [[censer]]s, and [[mime artist|pantomime]] performed by priests – recalled the events which Christian ritual celebrates. These were extensive sets of visual signs that could be used to communicate with a largely illiterate audience. These performances developed into [[liturgical drama]]s, the earliest of which is the ''Whom do you Seek (Quem-Quaeritis)'' Easter trope, dating from ca. 925.<ref name="Brockett_Hildy,76"/> Liturgical drama was sung responsively by two groups and did not involve actors impersonating characters. However, sometime between 965 and 975, [[Æthelwold of Winchester]] composed the ''Regularis Concordia (Monastic Agreement)'' which contains a playlet complete with directions for performance.<ref name="Brockett and Hildy 2003, 77">Brockett and Hildy (2003, 77)</ref>

[[Hrosvitha]] (c. 935 – 973), a canoness in northern [[Germany]], wrote six plays modeled on [[Terence]]'s comedies but using religious subjects. These six plays – ''Abraham, Callimachus, Dulcitius, Gallicanus, Paphnutius, ''and ''Sapientia'' – are the first known plays composed by a female dramatist and the first identifiable Western dramatic works of the post-classical era.<ref name="Brockett and Hildy 2003, 77"/> They were first published in 1501 and had considerable influence on religious and didactic plays of the sixteenth century. Hrosvitha was followed by [[Hildegard of Bingen]] (d. 1179), a [[Benedictine]] abbess, who wrote a [[Latin]] [[music]]al drama called ''Ordo Virtutum'' in 1155.

===High and late medieval theatre, 1050–1500===
[[File:Castle of Perseverance staging.jpg|thumb|Stage drawing from 15th-century [[vernacular]] [[morality play]] ''[[The Castle of Perseverance]]'' (as found in the [[Macro Manuscript]]).]]
((Main|Medieval theatre))

As the [[Viking]] invasions ceased in the middle of the 11th century, [[liturgical drama]] had spread from [[Russia]] to [[Scandinavia]] to [[Italy]]. Only in [[Al-Andalus|Muslim-occupied Iberian Peninsula]] were liturgical dramas not presented at all. Despite the large number of liturgical dramas that have survived from the period, many churches would have only performed one or two per year and a larger number never performed any at all.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 78)</ref>

The [[Feast of Fools]] was especially important in the development of comedy. The festival inverted the status of the lesser clergy and allowed them to ridicule their superiors and the routine of church life. Sometimes plays were staged as part of the occasion and a certain amount of [[burlesque]] and comedy crept into these performances. Although comic episodes had to truly wait until the separation of drama from the liturgy, the Feast of Fools undoubtedly had a profound effect on the development of comedy in both religious and secular plays.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 81)</ref>

Performance of religious plays outside of the church began sometime in the 12th century through a traditionally accepted process of merging shorter liturgical dramas into longer plays which were then translated into [[vernacular]] and performed by laymen. ''[[The Play of Adam|The Mystery of Adam]] '' (1150) gives credence to this theory as its detailed stage direction suggest that it was staged outdoors. A number of other plays from the period survive, including ''La Seinte Resurrection'' ([[Normans|Norman]]), ''The Play of the Magi Kings'' ([[Spain|Spanish]]), and ''Sponsus'' ([[France|French]]).

The importance of the [[High Middle Ages]] in the development of theatre was the [[economic]] and [[political]] changes that led to the formation of [[guilds]] and the growth of towns. This would lead to significant changes in the [[Late Middle Ages]]. In the [[British Isles]], plays were produced in some 127 different towns during the Middle Ages. These vernacular [[Mystery plays]] were written in cycles of a large number of plays: [[York Mystery Plays|York]] (48 plays), [[Chester Mystery Plays|Chester]] (24), [[Wakefield Mystery Plays|Wakefield]] (32) and [[N-Town Plays|Unknown]] (42). A larger number of plays survive from France and Germany in this period and some type of religious dramas were performed in nearly every European country in the [[Late Middle Ages]]. Many of these plays contained comedy, [[devil]]s, [[villain]]s and [[clown]]s.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 86)</ref>

The majority of actors in these plays were drawn from the local population. For example, at [[Valenciennes]] in 1547, more than 100 roles were assigned to 72 actors.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 95)</ref> Plays were staged on [[pageant wagon]] stages, which were platforms mounted on wheels used to move scenery. Often providing their own costumes, amateur performers in England were exclusively male, but other countries had female performers. The platform stage, which was an unidentified space and not a specific locale, allowed for abrupt changes in location.

[[Morality plays]] emerged as a distinct dramatic form around 1400 and flourished until 1550. The most interesting morality play is ''[[The Castle of Perseverance]]'' which depicts [[Human|mankind]]'s progress from birth to death. However, the most famous morality play and perhaps best known medieval drama is ''[[Everyman]]''. Everyman receives [[Death]]'s summons, struggles to escape and finally resigns himself to necessity. Along the way, he is deserted by [[Kinship|Kindred]], [[Good (economics)|Goods]], and [[Fellow]]ship – only [[Good works|Good Deeds]] goes with him to the grave.

There were also a number of secular performances staged in the Middle Ages, the earliest of which is ''The Play of the Greenwood'' by [[Adam de la Halle]] in 1276. It contains satirical scenes and [[Folk culture|folk]] material such as [[faeries]] and other supernatural occurrences. [[Farce]]s also rose dramatically in popularity after the 13th century. The majority of these plays come from France and Germany and are similar in tone and form, emphasizing [[sex]] and bodily excretions.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 96)</ref> The best known playwright of farces is [[Hans Sachs]] (1494–1576) who wrote 198 dramatic works. In England, [[The Second Shepherds' Play]] of the [[Wakefield Cycle]] is the best known early farce. However, farce did not appear independently in England until the 16th century with the work of [[John Heywood]] (1497–1580).

A significant forerunner of the development of [[Elizabethan]] drama was the [[Chamber of rhetoric|Chambers of Rhetoric]] in the [[Low Countries]].<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 99)</ref> These societies were concerned with [[poetry]], [[music]] and [[drama]] and held contests to see which society could compose the best drama in relation to a question posed.

At the end of the [[Late Middle Ages]], professional actors began to appear in [[England]] and [[Europe]]. [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] and [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] both maintained small companies of professional actors. Their plays were performed in the [[Great Hall]] of a nobleman's residence, often with a raised platform at one end for the audience and a "screen" at the other for the actors. Also important were [[Mummers Play|Mummers' plays]], performed during the [[Christmas]] season, and court [[masque]]s. These masques were especially popular during the reign of [[Henry VIII]] who had a House of Revels built and an [[Master of the Revels|Office of Revels]] established in 1545.<ref name="Brockett_Hildy,101-103">Brockett and Hildy (2003, 101–103)</ref>

The end of medieval drama came about due to a number of factors, including the weakening power of the [[Catholic Church]], the [[Protestant Reformation]] and the banning of religious plays in many countries. [[Elizabeth I]] forbid all religious plays in 1558 and the great cycle plays had been silenced by the 1580s. Similarly, religious plays were banned in the [[Netherlands]] in 1539, the [[Papal States]] in 1547 and in [[Paris]] in 1548. The abandonment of these plays destroyed the international theatre that had thereto existed and forced each country to develop its own form of drama. It also allowed dramatists to turn to secular subjects and the reviving interest in [[ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] theatre provided them with the perfect opportunity.<ref name="Brockett_Hildy,101-103"/>

===Italian ''Commedia dell'arte'' and Renaissance===
((Main|Commedia dell'arte))
[[File:Statue in legno e porcellana coi personaggi della commedia dell'arte, 01 pantalone e arlecchino.jpg|thumb|Statues of [[Pantalone]] and [[Harlequin]], two stock characters from the ''[[Commedia dell'arte]]'', in the [[Museo Teatrale alla Scala]], [[Milan]], [[Italy]]]]

''[[Commedia dell'arte]]'' (((lit|comedy of the profession)))<ref name=britannica>((Britannica|127742))</ref> was an early form of professional theatre, originating from [[Italian theatre]], that was popular throughout Europe between the 16th and 18th centuries.<ref>((Cite book |title=Italian Popular Comedy: A Study In The Commedia Dell'Arte, 1560–1620 With Special Reference to the English State |last=Lea |first=Kathleen |publisher=Russell & Russell INC |year=1962 |location=New York |page=3))((No ISBN))</ref><ref>((cite web |last1=Wilson |first1=Matthew R. |title=A History of Commedia dell'arte |url=http://www.factionoffools.org/history |website=Faction of Fools |access-date=9 December 2016 |archive-date=13 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313021054/http://www.factionoffools.org/history |url-status=dead ))</ref> It was formerly called "Italian comedy" in English and is also known as ((Lang|it|commedia alla maschera)), ((Lang|it|commedia improvviso)), and ((Lang|it|commedia dell'arte all'improvviso)).<ref name=":2" /> Characterized by [[Theatre mask|masked]] "types", ((Lang|it|commedia)) was responsible for the rise of actresses such as [[Isabella Andreini]]<ref name=":02">((Cite book |title=The Italian Comedy: The Improvisation Scenarios Lives Attributes Portraits and Masks of the Illustrious Characters of the Commedia dell'Arte |last=Ducharte |first=Pierre Louis |publisher=Dover Publication |year=1966 |isbn=978-0486216799 |location=New York |page=17 |url=https://archive.org/details/italiancomedyimp0000duch/page/17))</ref> and [[Improvisational theatre|improvised performances]] based on [[Sketch comedy|sketches]] or scenarios.<ref name=":10">((Cite book |title=The Routledge Companion to Commedia Dell'Arte |author1=Chaffee, Judith |author2=Crick, Olly |publisher=Rutledge Taylor and Francis Group |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-74506-2|location=London and New York |page=1))</ref><ref>((cite web |url=http://www.factionoffools.org/history |title=Faction Of Fools |access-date=2022-12-13 |archive-date=2017-03-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313021054/http://www.factionoffools.org/history |url-status=dead ))</ref> A ((Lang|it|commedia)), such as ''The Tooth Puller'', is both scripted and improvised.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":1">((Cite book |title=Playing Commedia A Training Guide to Commedia Techniques |last=Grantham |first=Barry |publisher=Heinemann Drama |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-325-00346-7 |location=United Kingdom |pages=3, 6–7))</ref> Characters' entrances and exits are scripted. A special characteristic of ((Lang|it|commedia)) is the ((Lang|it|[[lazzi|lazzo]])), a joke or "something foolish or witty", usually well known to the performers and to some extent a scripted routine.<ref name=":1" /><ref>((Cite book|title=Lazzi: The Comic Routine of the Commedia dell'Arte|last=Gordon|first=Mel|publisher=Performing Arts Journal Publications|year=1983|isbn=978-0-933826-69-4|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/lazzicomicroutin00gord/page/4 4]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/lazzicomicroutin00gord/page/4))</ref> Another characteristic of ((Lang|it|commedia)) is [[Mime artist|pantomime]], which is mostly used by the character Arlecchino, now better known as [[Harlequin]].<ref>((Cite book|title=A History Of Pantomime|last=Broadbent|first=R.J.|publisher=Benjamin Blom, Inc.|year=1901|location=New York|page=62))</ref>

The characters of the ((Lang|it|commedia)) usually represent fixed social types and [[stock character]]s, such as foolish old men, devious servants, or military officers full of false [[bravery|bravado]].<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":3">((cite web|url=http://www.factionoffools.org/history|title=Faction of Fools ((!)) A History of Commedia dell'Arte|website=www.factionoffools.org|access-date=2016-12-09|archive-date=2017-03-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313021054/http://www.factionoffools.org/history|url-status=dead))</ref> The characters are exaggerated "real characters", such as a know-it-all doctor called [[Il Dottore]], a greedy old man called [[Pantalone]], or a perfect relationship like the ''[[Innamorati]]''.<ref name=":02" /> Many troupes were formed to perform ((Lang|it|commedia)), including [[I Gelosi]] (which had actors such as Andreini and her husband [[Francesco Andreini]]),<ref>((Cite book|title=The History of the Harlequinade|last=Maurice|first=Sand|publisher=Benjamin Bloom, Inc. |year=1915 |location=New York |page=135))((No ISBN))</ref> Confidenti Troupe, Desioi Troupe, and Fedeli Troupe.<ref name=":02"/><ref name=":10" /> ((Lang|it|Commedia)) was often performed outside on platforms or in popular areas such as a ((Lang|it|piazza)) ([[town square]]).<ref name=":2">((Cite book|title=Commedia Dell'Arte An Actor's Handbook|last=Rudlin|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=1994|isbn=978-0-415-04769-2|location=London and New York|page=48))</ref><ref name=":10" /> The form of theatre originated in Italy, but travelled throughout Europe - sometimes to as far away as Moscow.<ref>((Cite book|title=The World of Harlequin: A Critical Study of the Commedia dell'Arte.|last=Nicoll|first=Allardyce|publisher=Cambridge University Press.|year=1963|location=London|page=9))((No ISBN))</ref>

The genesis of ((Lang|it|commedia)) may be related to [[carnival]] in [[Venice]], where the author and actor [[Andrea Calmo]] had created the character Il Magnifico, the precursor to the ((Lang|it|[[vecchio]])) (old man) Pantalone, by 1570. In the [[Flaminio Scala]] scenario, for example, Il Magnifico persists and is interchangeable with Pantalone into the 17th century. While Calmo's characters (which also included the Spanish Capitano and a ((Lang|it|[[dottore]])) type) were not masked, it is uncertain at what point the characters donned the mask. However, the connection to carnival (the period between [[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]] and [[Ash Wednesday]]) would suggest that masking was a convention of carnival and was applied at some point. The tradition in Northern Italy is centred in [[Florence]], [[Mantua]], and Venice, where the major companies came under the protection of the various [[Duke of Italy|dukes]]. Concomitantly, a [[Naples|Neapolitan]] tradition emerged in the south and featured the prominent stage figure [[Pulcinella]], which has been long associated with Naples and derived into various types elsewhere—most famously as the puppet character Punch (of the eponymous [[Punch and Judy]] shows) in England.

The [[commedia dell’arte]] allowed professional women to perform early on: [[Lucrezia Di Siena]], whose name is on a contract of actors from 1564, has been referred to as the first Italian actress known by name, with [[Vincenza Armani]] and [[Barbara Flaminia]] as the first primadonna and the well-documented actresses in Europe.<ref>Giacomo Oreglia (2002). Commedia dell'arte. Ordfront. ((ISBN|91-7324-602-6))</ref>

=== English Elizabethan theatre===
((More citations needed section|date=April 2011))
[[File:The Swan cropped.png|thumb|A 1596 sketch of a performance in progress on the [[thrust stage]] of [[The Swan (theatre)|The Swan]], a typical [[English Renaissance theatre|Elizabethan]] open-roof playhouse.]]
((Main|English Renaissance theatre))
English Renaissance theatre derived from several medieval theatre traditions, such as, the mystery plays that formed a part of religious festivals in England and other parts of Europe during the Middle Ages. Other sources include the "[[morality play]]s" and the "University drama" that attempted to recreate Athenian tragedy. The Italian tradition of ''Commedia dell'arte'', as well as the elaborate [[masque]]s frequently presented at court, also contributed to the shaping of public theatre.

Since before the reign of Elizabeth I, [[Playing company|companies of players]] were attached to households of leading aristocrats and performed secular pieces seasonally in various locations.<ref name="Mortimer 2012, 352">Mortimer (2012, 352).</ref> These became the foundation for the professional players that performed on the Elizabethan stage. The tours of these players gradually replaced the performances of the mystery and morality plays by local players.<ref name="Mortimer 2012, 352"/> A 1572 law eliminated any unlicensed companies lacking formal patronage by labelling them [[vagabond (person)|vagabond]]s.<ref name="Mortimer 2012, 352"/>

The City of London authorities were generally hostile to public performances, but its hostility was overmatched by the Queen's taste for plays and the Privy Council's support.<ref>Mortimer (2012, 353).</ref> Theatres sprang up in suburbs, especially in the liberty of Southwark, accessible across the Thames to city dwellers but beyond the authorities' control. The companies maintained the pretence that their public performances were mere rehearsals for the frequent performances before the Queen, but while the latter did grant prestige, the former were the real source of the income for the professional players.

Along with the economics of the profession, the character of the drama changed toward the end of the period. Under Elizabeth, the drama was a unified expression as far as social class was concerned: the Court watched the same plays the commoners saw in the public playhouses. With the development of the private theatres, drama became more oriented toward the tastes and values of an upper-class audience. By the later part of the reign of Charles I, few new plays were being written for the public theatres, which sustained themselves on the accumulated works of the previous decades.<ref>Gurr (1992, 12–18).</ref>

[[Puritan]] opposition to the stage (informed by the arguments of the early Church Fathers who had written screeds against the decadent and violent entertainments of the Romans) argued not only that the stage in general was [[pagan]], but that any play that represented a religious figure was inherently [[Idolatry|idolatrous]]. In 1642, at the outbreak of the [[English Civil War]], the Puritan authorities banned the performance of all plays within the city limits of London. A sweeping assault against the alleged immoralities of the theatre crushed whatever remained in England of the dramatic tradition.

=== Counter-Reformation theatre ===
If Protestantism was characterized by an ambivalent relationship to theatricality, Counter-Reformation Catholicism was to use it for explicitly affective and evangelical purposes.<ref name=Shell/> The decorative innovations of baroque Catholic churches evolved symbiotically with the increasingly sophisticated art of [[scenography]]. Medieval theatrical traditions could be retained and developed in Catholic countries, wherever they were thought to be edifying. ''Sacre rappresentazioni'' in Italy, and ''[[Feast of Corpus Christi|Corpus Christi]]'' celebrations across Europe, are examples of this. ''Autos sacramentales'', the one-act plays at the centre of ''Corpus Christi'' celebrations in Spain, gave concrete and triumphal realization to the abstractions of Catholic [[eucharistic theology]], most famously in the hands of [[Pedro Calderón de la Barca]]. While the emphasis on [[predestination]] in [[Protestantism|Protestant theology]] had brought about a new appreciation of [[fatalism]] in [[classical drama]], this could be counteracted. The very idea of [[tragicomedy]] was controversial because the genre was a post-classical development, but tragicomedies became a popular Counter-Reformation form because they were suited to demonstrating the benign workings of [[divine providence]], and endorsing the concept of [[free will]]. [[Giovanni Battista Guarini]]’s ''Il pastor fido'' (The Faithful Shepherd, written 1580s, published 1602) was the most influential tragicomedy of the period, while [[Tirso de Molina]] is especially notable for ingeniously subverting the implications of his tragic plots by means of comic endings. A similar theologically motivated overturning of generic expectation lies behind ''tragœdiæ sacræ'' such as [[Francesco Sforza Pallavicino]]’s ''Ermenegildo''.<ref name=Shell/> This type of sacred tragedy developed from medieval dramatizations of saints’ lives; in them, martyr-protagonists die in a manner both tragic and triumphant. Enhancing Counter-Reformation Catholicism's encouragement of martyr cults, such plays could celebrate contemporary figures like Sir [[Thomas More]] — hero of several dramas across Europe — or be used to foment nationalistic sentiment.<ref name=Shell>((cite encyclopedia |year=2003 |title=Reformation and Counter-Reformation |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Theatre and Performance |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198601746.001.0001/acref-9780198601746-e-3281 |access-date=7 November 2023 |last=Shell |first=A.))</ref>

===Spanish Golden age theatre===
((Main|Spanish Golden Age theatre))
[[Image:Pedro Calderón de la Barca 01.jpg|thumb|Calderon de la Barca, a key figure in the theatre of the Spanish Golden Age]]
During its [[Spanish Golden Age|Golden Age]], roughly from 1590 to 1681,<ref name=whitesell>((cite journal|jstor=30228091|title=Fredson Bowers and the Editing of Spanish Golden Age Drama|journal=Text|author=David R. Whitesell|volume=8|date=1995|pages=67–84|publisher=Indiana University Press))</ref> [[Spain]] saw a monumental increase in the production of live theatre as well as in the importance of theatre within Spanish society. It was an accessible art form for all participants in Renaissance Spain, being both highly sponsored by the aristocratic class and highly attended by the lower classes.<ref name="thacker">((cite book|author=Jonathan Thacker|title=A Companion to Golden Age Theatre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WBK0dgU-4wIC|access-date=24 July 2013|date=1 January 2007|publisher=Boydell & Brewer Ltd|isbn=978-1-85566-140-0|archive-date=13 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613114845/https://books.google.com/books?id=WBK0dgU-4wIC|url-status=live))</ref> The volume and variety of Spanish plays during the Golden Age was unprecedented in the history of world theatre, surpassing, for example, the dramatic production of the [[English Renaissance theatre|English Renaissance]] by a factor of at least four.<ref name=whitesell /><ref name=thacker /><ref name="mears">((cite book|title=Compleat Catalogue of Plays that Were Ever Printed in the English Language|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xTgJAAAAQAAJ|access-date=24 July 2013|year=1719|publisher=W. Mears|archive-date=27 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427140849/https://books.google.com/books?id=xTgJAAAAQAAJ|url-status=live))</ref> Although this volume has been as much a source of criticism as praise for Spanish Golden Age theatre, for emphasizing quantity before quality,<ref name=nvcc>((cite web |url=http://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/spd130et/spanish.htm |title=Introduction to Theatre – Spanish Renaissance Theatre |publisher=Novaonline.nvcc.edu |date=2007-11-16 |access-date=2012-05-24 |archive-date=2021-01-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116110514/https://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/spd130et/spanish.htm |url-status=live ))</ref> a large number of the 10,000<ref name=thacker /> to 30,000<ref name=nvcc /> plays of this period are still considered masterpieces.<ref name=pasto>((cite web |url=http://comedia.denison.edu/golden.html |title=Golden Age |publisher=Comedia.denison.edu |access-date=2012-05-24 |archive-date=2011-12-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111217030531/http://comedia.denison.edu/golden.html |url-status=live ))</ref><ref name=schevill>((cite journal|jstor=470268|title=Lope de Vega and the Golden Age|author=Rudolph Schevill|journal=Hispanic Review|volume=3|issue=3|date=July 1935|pages=179–189|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|doi=10.2307/470268))</ref>

Major artists of the period included [[Lope de Vega]], a contemporary of Shakespeare, often, and contemporaneously, seen his parallel for the Spanish stage,<ref name=cambridge>((cite web |author=Ernst Honigmann |url=http://cco.cambridge.org/extract?id=ccol0521650941_CCOL0521650941A002 |title=Cambridge Collections Online : Shakespeare's life |publisher=Cco.cambridge.org |access-date=2012-05-24 |archive-date=2013-04-14 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130414143026/http://cco.cambridge.org/extract?id=ccol0521650941_CCOL0521650941A002 |url-status=live ))</ref> and [[Calderon de la Barca]], inventor of the zarzuela<ref name="dipuccio">((cite book|author=Denise M. DiPuccio|title=Communicating Myths of the Golden Age Comedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=34TXDx6cBTIC|access-date=24 July 2013|year=1998|publisher=Bucknell University Press|isbn=978-0-8387-5372-9|archive-date=3 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603065333/https://books.google.com/books?id=34TXDx6cBTIC|url-status=live))</ref> and Lope's successor as the preeminent Spanish dramatist.<ref name=theatredatabase>((cite web |url=http://www.theatredatabase.com/17th_century/calderon_and_lope_de_vega.html |title=Calderon and Lope de Vega |publisher=Theatredatabase.com |access-date=2012-05-24 |archive-date=2012-07-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728182028/http://www.theatredatabase.com/17th_century/calderon_and_lope_de_vega.html |url-status=live ))</ref> [[Gil Vicente]], [[Lope de Rueda]], and [[Juan del Encina]] helped to establish the foundations of Spanish theatre in the mid-sixteenth centuries,<ref name=garay>((cite journal|jstor=27922855|title=Gil Vicente and the "Comedia" Tradition in Iberian Theater|author=Rene P. Garay|journal=Confluencia|volume=17|issue=2|date=2002|pages=54–65|publisher=University of Northern Colorado))</ref><ref name=hesler>((cite journal|title=A New Look at the Theatre of Lope de Rueda|author=Richard Hesler|journal=Educational Theatre Journal|volume=16|issue = 1|date=March 1964|pages=47–54|publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press|jstor = 3204377|doi=10.2307/3204377))</ref><ref name="sullivan">((cite book|author=Henry W. Sullivan|title=Juan Del Encina|url=https://archive.org/details/juandelencina00sull|url-access=registration|access-date=24 July 2013|year=1976|publisher=Twayne|isbn=978-0-8057-6166-5))</ref> while [[Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla]] and [[Tirso de Molina]] made significant contributions in the latter half of the Golden Age.<ref name=Reichenberger>((cite journal|jstor=471618|title=Recent Publications concerning Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla|author=Arnold G. Reichenberger|journal=Hispanic Review|volume=32|issue=4|date=October 1964|pages=351–359|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|doi=10.2307/471618))</ref><ref name=wade>((cite journal|title=Tirso de Molina|author=Gerald E. Wade|journal=Hispania|volume=32|issue = 2|date=May 1949|pages=131–140|publisher=American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese|jstor = 333062|doi=10.2307/333062))</ref> Important performers included Lope de Rueda (previously mentioned among the playwrights) and later [[Juan Rana]].<ref name="hochman">((cite book|author=Stanley Hochman|title=McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of World Drama: An International Reference Work in 5 Volumes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=88xIQiXVMCQC|access-date=24 July 2013|year=1984|publisher=VNR AG|isbn=978-0-07-079169-5|archive-date=25 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625094855/https://books.google.com/books?id=88xIQiXVMCQC|url-status=live))</ref><ref name=thompson>((cite journal|jstor=27763975|title=La boda de Juan Rana de Cáncer y Velasco: el travestismo y la identidad matrimonial-sexual|author=PETER E. THOMPSON|journal=Revista Canadiense de Estudios Hispánicos|volume=29|issue=1|date=2004|pages=157–167))</ref>

The sources of influence for the emerging national theatre of Spain were as diverse as the theatre that nation ended up producing. Storytelling traditions originating in Italian [[Commedia dell'arte]]<ref name=johnston>((cite web |url=http://www.coursesindrama.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=82 |title=Background to Spanish Drama – Medieval to Renascence Drama > Spanish Golden Age Drama – Drama Courses |publisher=Courses in Drama |date=2007-12-23 |access-date=2012-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921100614/http://www.coursesindrama.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=82 |archive-date=2011-09-21 |url-status=dead ))</ref> and the uniquely Spanish expression of [[Western Europe]]'s traveling minstrel entertainments<ref name="burningham">((cite book|author=Bruce R. Burningham|title=Radical Theatricality: Jongleuresque Performance on the Early Spanish Stage|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nvw_Wgw32h0C|access-date=24 July 2013|year=2007|publisher=Purdue University Press|isbn=978-1-55753-441-5|archive-date=25 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625094854/https://books.google.com/books?id=nvw_Wgw32h0C|url-status=live))</ref><ref name=kreitner>((cite journal|jstor=3128021|title=Minstrels in Spanish Churches, 1400–1600|author=Kenneth Kreitner|journal=Early Music|volume=20|issue=4|date=November 1992|pages=532–546|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/em/xx.4.532))</ref> contributed a populist influence on the narratives and the music, respectively, of early Spanish theatre. Neo-Aristotelian criticism and liturgical dramas, on the other hand, contributed literary and moralistic perspectives.<ref name=westerntheatrehistory>((cite web |url=http://westerntheatrehistory.com/SpanishMovements.aspx |title=Share Documents and Files Online &#124; Microsoft Office Live |publisher=Westerntheatrehistory.com |access-date=2012-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421153302/http://westerntheatrehistory.com/SpanishMovements.aspx |archive-date=2012-04-21 |url-status=dead ))</ref><ref name=bristol>((cite web |url=http://www.bristol.ac.uk/hispanic/current/undergrad/courses/golden.html#drama |title=Hispanic, Portuguese & Latin American Studies – HISP20048 The Theatre of the Spanish Golden Age |publisher=Bristol University |access-date=2012-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020184244/http://www.bristol.ac.uk/hispanic/current/undergrad/courses/golden.html#drama |archive-date=2014-10-20 |url-status=dead ))</ref> In turn, Spanish Golden Age theatre has dramatically influenced the theatre of later generations in Europe and throughout the world. Spanish drama had an immediate and significant impact on the contemporary developments in [[English Renaissance theatre]].<ref name=pasto /> It has also had a lasting impact on theatre throughout the Spanish speaking world.<ref name="doggart">((cite book|author1=Sebastian Doggart|author2=Octavio Paz|title=Latin American Plays: New Drama from Argentina, Cuba, Mexico and Peru|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X95fdvSw06MC|access-date=24 July 2013|year=1996|publisher=Nick Hern Books|isbn=978-1-85459-249-1|archive-date=29 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429223145/https://books.google.com/books?id=X95fdvSw06MC|url-status=live))</ref> Additionally, a growing number of works are being translated, increasing the reach of Spanish Golden Age theatre and strengthening its reputation among critics and theatre patrons.<ref name=muir>((cite journal|jstor=40339624|title=Translating Golden Age Plays: A Reconsideration|journal=Translation and Literature|author=Kenneth Muir|volume=1|date=1992|pages=104–111|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|doi=10.3366/tal.1992.1.1.104|s2cid=161917109 ))</ref>

===French Classical theatre===
Notable playwrights:
*[[Pierre Corneille]] (1606–84)
*[[Molière]] (1622–73)
*[[Jean Racine]] (1639–99)

===Cretan Renaissance theatre===

Greek theater was alive and flourishing on the island of Crete.  During the [[Cretan school|Cretan Renaissance]] two notable Greek playwrights [[Georgios Chortatzis]] and [[Vitsentzos Kornaros]] were present in the latter part of the 16th century.<ref>((cite book | author = Robert Browning | title = Medieval and Modern Greek | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | year = 1983 | isbn = 0-521-29978-0 | pages = 90–91))</ref><ref>((Cite web|url=http://lang-up.eu/cretan/|title=Cretan – Lang Up|language=en-US|access-date=2019-02-14|archive-date=2019-02-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190215050612/http://lang-up.eu/cretan/|url-status=live))</ref>

===Restoration comedy===
((More citations needed section|date=May 2011))
((Main|Restoration comedy))
[[File:Love in a Tub.png|thumb|Refinement meets burlesque in [[Restoration comedy]]. In this scene from [[George Etherege]]'s ''Love in a Tub'' (1664), musicians and well-bred ladies surround a man who is wearing a tub because he has lost his [[trousers]].]]
After public stage performances had been banned for 18 years by the Puritan regime, the re-opening of the theatres in 1660 signalled a renaissance of English drama. With the restoration of the monarch in 1660 came the restoration of and the reopening of the theatre. English comedies written and performed in the [[Restoration (England)|Restoration]] period from 1660 to 1710 are collectively called "Restoration comedy". Restoration comedy is notorious for its [[human sexual behavior|sexual]] explicitness, a quality encouraged by [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] (1660–1685) personally and by the [[rake (character)|rakish]] [[aristocracy|aristocratic]] [[ethos]] of his [[noble court|court]]. For the first time women were allowed to act, putting an end to the practice of the [[Boy player|boy-player]] taking the parts of women. Socially diverse audiences included both aristocrats, their servants and hangers-on, and a substantial middle-class segment. Restoration audiences liked to see good triumph in their tragedies and rightful government restored. In comedy they liked to see the love-lives of the young and fashionable, with a central couple bringing their courtship to a successful conclusion (often overcoming the opposition of the elders to do so). Heroines had to be chaste, but were independent-minded and outspoken; now that they were played by women, there was more mileage for the playwright in disguising them in men's clothes or giving them narrow escape from rape. These playgoers were attracted to the comedies by up-to-the-minute topical writing, by crowded and bustling [[Plot (narrative)|plots]], by the introduction of the first professional actresses, and by the rise of the first celebrity actors. To non-theatre-goers these comedies were widely seen as licentious and morally suspect, holding up the antics of a small, privileged, and decadent class for admiration. This same class dominated the audiences of the Restoration theatre. This period saw the first professional woman playwright, [[Aphra Behn]].

As a reaction to the decadence of Charles II era productions, [[sentimental comedy]] grew in popularity. This genre focused on encouraging virtuous behavior by showing middle class characters overcoming a series of moral trials. Playwrights like [[Colley Cibber]] and [[Richard Steele]] believed that humans were inherently good but capable of being led astray. Through plays such as [[The Conscious Lovers]] and [[Love's Last Shift]] they strove to appeal to an audience's noble sentiments in order that viewers could be reformed.<ref name=Campbell>((cite web|last1=Campbell|first1=William|title=Sentimental Comedy in England and on the Continent|url=http://www.bartleby.com/220/0402.html|website=The Cambridge History of English and American Literature|access-date=28 February 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402100336/http://www.bartleby.com/220/0402.html|url-status=live))</ref><ref name=Harman>((cite book|last1=Harman|first1=William|title=A Handbook to Literature|date=2011|publisher=Longman|isbn=978-0205024018|edition=12))</ref>

===Restoration spectacular===
((Main|Restoration spectacular))
The '''Restoration spectacular''', or elaborately staged "machine play", hit the [[London]] public stage in the late 17th-century [[English Restoration|Restoration]] period, enthralling audiences with action, music, dance, moveable [[theatrical scenery|scenery]], [[baroque illusionistic painting]], gorgeous costumes, and [[special effect]]s such as [[trapdoor]] tricks, "flying" actors, and [[fireworks]]. These shows have always had a bad reputation as a vulgar and commercial threat to the witty, "legitimate" [[Restoration drama]]; however, they drew Londoners in unprecedented numbers and left them dazzled and delighted.

Basically home-grown and with roots in the early 17th-century [[court]] [[masque]], though never ashamed of borrowing ideas and stage technology from [[French opera]], the spectaculars are sometimes called "English opera". However, the variety of them is so untidy that most theatre historians despair of defining them as a [[genre]] at all.<ref>Hume (1976, 205).</ref> Only a handful of works of this period are usually accorded the term "opera", as the musical dimension of most of them is subordinate to the visual. It was spectacle and scenery that drew in the crowds, as shown by many comments in the diary of the theatre-lover [[Samuel Pepys]].<ref>Hume (1976, 206–209).</ref> The expense of mounting ever more elaborate scenic productions drove the two competing theatre companies into a dangerous spiral of huge expenditure and correspondingly huge losses or profits. A fiasco such as [[John Dryden]]'s ''[[Albion and Albanius]]'' would leave a company in serious debt, while blockbusters like [[Thomas Shadwell]]'s ''[[Psyche (Locke)|Psyche]]'' or Dryden's ''[[King Arthur (opera)|King Arthur]]'' would put it comfortably in the black for a long time.<ref>Milhous (1979, 47–48).</ref>

===Neoclassical theatre===
((More citations needed section|date=April 2011))
((Further|Neoclassicism))
[[File:Ostankino19.JPG|thumb|An 18th-century Neoclassical theatre in [[Ostankino Palace|Ostankino]], [[Moscow]]]]
[[Neoclassicism]] was the dominant form of theatre in the 18th century. It demanded [[decorum]] and rigorous adherence to the [[classical unities]]. Neoclassical theatre as well as the time period is characterized by its grandiosity. The costumes and scenery were intricate and elaborate. The acting is characterized by large gestures and melodrama. Neoclassical theatre encompasses the Restoration, Augustan, and Johnstinian Ages. In one sense, the neo-classical age directly follows the time of the Renaissance.

Theatres of the early 18th century – sexual farces of the Restoration were superseded by politically satirical comedies, 1737 Parliament passed the Stage [[Licensing Act 1737]] which introduced state censorship of public performances and limited the number of theatres in London to two.

===Nineteenth-century theatre===
((Main|Nineteenth-century theatre))
Theatre in the 19th century is divided into two parts: early and late. The early period was dominated by [[melodrama]] and [[Romanticism]].

Beginning in France, melodrama became the most popular theatrical form. [[August von Kotzebue]]'s ''Misanthropy and Repentance'' (1789) is often considered the first melodramatic play. The plays of Kotzebue and [[René Charles Guilbert de Pixérécourt]] established melodrama as the dominant dramatic form of the early 19th century.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 277).</ref>

In Germany, there was a trend toward historical accuracy in [[Stage clothes|costumes]] and [[Set construction|settings]], a revolution in theatre architecture, and the introduction of the theatrical form of [[German Romanticism]]. Influenced by trends in [[19th-century philosophy]] and the [[visual arts]], German writers were increasingly fascinated with their [[Teutons|Teutonic]] past and had a growing sense of [[Romantic nationalism|nationalism]]. The plays of [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]], [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]], [[Friedrich Schiller]], and other ''[[Sturm und Drang]]'' playwrights inspired a growing faith in feeling and instinct as guides to moral behavior.

[[File:Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton by Henry William Pickersgill.jpg|thumb|[[Edward Bulwer-Lytton]].]]
In [[Theatre of the United Kingdom|Britain]], [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] and [[Lord Byron]] were the most important dramatists of their time although Shelley's plays were not performed until later in the century. In the minor theatres, [[burletta]] and [[melodrama]] were the most popular. Kotzebue's plays were translated into English and [[Thomas Holcroft]]'s ''A Tale of Mystery'' was the first of many English melodramas. [[Pierce Egan]], [[Douglas William Jerrold]], [[Edward Fitzball]], and [[John Baldwin Buckstone]] initiated a trend towards more contemporary and rural stories in preference to the usual historical or fantastical melodramas. [[James Sheridan Knowles]] and [[Edward Bulwer-Lytton]] established a "gentlemanly" drama that began to re-establish the former prestige of the theatre with the [[aristocracy]].<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 297–298).</ref>

The later period of the 19th century saw the rise of two conflicting types of drama: [[Realism (theatre)|realism]] and non-realism, such as [[Symbolist theater|Symbolism]] and precursors of [[Expressionism (theatre)|Expressionism]].

Realism began earlier in the 19th century in Russia than elsewhere in Europe and took a more uncompromising form.<ref name=BH370>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 370).</ref> Beginning with the plays of [[Ivan Turgenev]] (who used "domestic detail to reveal inner turmoil"), [[Aleksandr Ostrovsky]] (who was Russia's first professional playwright), [[Aleksey Pisemsky]] (whose ''[[A Bitter Fate]]'' (1859) anticipated [[Naturalism (theatre)|Naturalism]]), and [[Leo Tolstoy]] (whose ''[[The Power of Darkness]]'' (1886) is "one of the most effective of naturalistic plays"), a tradition of psychological realism in Russia culminated with the establishment of the [[Moscow Art Theatre]] by [[Konstantin Stanislavski]] and [[Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko]].<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 370, 372) and Benedetti (2005, 100) and (1999, 14–17).</ref>

The most important theatrical force in later 19th-century Germany was that of [[Georg II, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen]] and his [[Meiningen Ensemble]], under the direction of [[Ludwig Chronegk]]. The Ensemble's productions are often considered the most historically accurate of the 19th century, although his primary goal was to serve the interests of the playwright. The Meiningen Ensemble stands at the beginning of the new movement toward unified production (or what [[Richard Wagner]] would call the ''[[Gesamtkunstwerk]]'') and the rise of the [[theatre director|director]] (at the expense of the actor) as the dominant artist in theatre-making.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 357–359).</ref>

[[File:Zuschauerraum des Bayreuther Festspielhauses (1870s engraving).png|thumb|left|[[Richard Wagner]]'s Bayreuth Festival Theatre.]]

[[Naturalism (theatre)|Naturalism]], a theatrical movement born out of [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[The Origin of Species]]'' (1859) and contemporary political and economic conditions, found its main proponent in [[Émile Zola]]. The realisation of Zola's ideas was hindered by a lack of capable dramatists writing naturalist drama. [[André Antoine]] emerged in the 1880s with his ''[[Théâtre Libre]]'' that was only open to members and therefore was exempt from censorship. He quickly won the approval of Zola and began to stage Naturalistic works and other foreign realistic pieces.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 362–363).</ref>

In Britain, melodramas, light comedies, operas, Shakespeare and classic English drama, [[Victorian burlesque]], [[pantomimes]], translations of French farces and, from the 1860s, French operettas, continued to be popular. So successful were the [[comic opera]]s of [[Gilbert and Sullivan]], such as ''[[H.M.S. Pinafore]]'' (1878) and ''[[The Mikado]]'' (1885), that they greatly expanded the audience for musical theatre.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 326–327).</ref> This, together with much improved street lighting and transportation in London and New York led to a late Victorian and Edwardian theatre building boom in the West End and on Broadway. Later, the work of [[Henry Arthur Jones]] and [[Arthur Wing Pinero]] initiated a new direction on the English stage.

[[File:Ibsen-by-Borgen.jpg|thumb|[[Henrik Ibsen]]]]
While their work paved the way, the development of more significant drama owes itself most to the playwright [[Henrik Ibsen]]. Ibsen was born in [[Norway]] in 1828. He wrote twenty-five plays, the most famous of which are ''[[A Doll's House]]'' (1879), ''[[Ghosts (play)|Ghosts]]'' (1881), ''[[The Wild Duck]]'' (1884), and ''[[Hedda Gabler]]'' (1890). In addition, his works ''[[Rosmersholm]]'' (1886) and ''[[When We Dead Awaken]]'' (1899) evoke a sense of mysterious forces at work in human destiny, which was to be a major theme of [[Symbolist theatre|symbolism]] and the so-called "[[Theatre of the Absurd]]".((citation needed|date=December 2011))

After Ibsen, British theatre experienced revitalization with the work of [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Oscar Wilde]], [[John Galsworthy]], [[William Butler Yeats]], and [[Harley Granville Barker]]. Unlike most of the gloomy and intensely serious work of their contemporaries, Shaw and Wilde wrote primarily in the comic form. [[Edwardian musical comedies]] were extremely popular, appealing to the tastes of the middle class in the [[Gay Nineties]]<ref>The first "Edwardian musical comedy" is usually considered to be ''[[In Town (musical)|In Town]]'' (1892). See, e.g., Charlton, Fraser. [http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/fraser.charlton/edmuscom/page12/edmuscom_what.html "What are EdMusComs?"] ((Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071208181811/http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/fraser.charlton/edmuscom/page12/edmuscom_what.html |date=2007-12-08 )) FrasrWeb 2007, accessed May 12, 2011</ref> and catering to the public's preference for escapist entertainment during World War 1.

===Twentieth-century theatre===
((See also|Twentieth-century theatre|Timeline of twentieth-century theatre|Musical theatre))
While much [[Twentieth-century theatre|20th-century theatre]] continued and extended the projects of [[Realism (theatre)|realism]] and Naturalism, there was also a great deal of [[experimental theatre]] that rejected those conventions. These experiments form part of the [[Modernism|modernist]] and [[Postmodern theatre|postmodernist]] [[Art movement|movements]] and included forms of [[Political drama|political theatre]] as well as more aesthetically orientated work. Examples include: [[Epic theater|Epic theatre]], the [[Theatre of Cruelty]], and the so-called "[[Theatre of the Absurd]]".

The term [[theatre practitioner]] came to be used to describe someone who both creates theatrical [[performance]]s and who produces a [[theory|theoretical]] [[discourse]] that informs their practical work.<ref>Milling and Ley (2001, vi, 173) and Pavis (1998, 280). ((lang-de|Theaterpraktiker)), ((lang-fr|praticien)), ((lang-es|teatrista)).</ref> A theatre practitioner may be a [[Theatre director|director]], a [[dramatist]], an actor, or—characteristically—often a combination of these traditionally separate roles. "Theatre practice" describes the collective work that various theatre practitioners do.<ref>Pavis (1998, 392).</ref> It is used to describe theatre [[Praxis (process)|praxis]] from [[Konstantin Stanislavski]]'s development of his '[[Stanislavski's 'system'|system]]', through [[Vsevolod Meyerhold]]'s [[Biomechanics (Meyerhold)|biomechanics]], [[Bertolt Brecht]]'s [[Epic theatre|epic]] and [[Jerzy Grotowski]]'s [[poor theatre]], down to the present day, with contemporary theatre practitioners including [[Augusto Boal]] with his [[Theatre of the Oppressed]], [[Dario Fo]]'s [[Popular Theatre|popular theatre]], [[Eugenio Barba]]'s [[theatre anthropology]] and [[Anne Bogart]]'s [[viewpoints]].<ref>McCullough (1996, 15–36) and Milling and Ley (2001, vii, 175).</ref>

Other key figures of 20th-century theatre include: [[Antonin Artaud]], [[August Strindberg]], [[Anton Chekhov]], [[Frank Wedekind]], [[Maurice Maeterlinck]], [[Federico García Lorca]], [[Eugene O'Neill]], [[Luigi Pirandello]], [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Gertrude Stein]], [[Ernst Toller]], [[Vladimir Mayakovsky]], [[Arthur Miller]], [[Tennessee Williams]], [[Jean Genet]], [[Eugène Ionesco]], [[Samuel Beckett]], [[Harold Pinter]], [[Friedrich Dürrenmatt]], [[Heiner Müller]], and [[Caryl Churchill]].

A number of [[Aesthetics|aesthetic]] movements continued or emerged in the 20th century, including:
*[[Naturalism (theatre)|Naturalism]]
*[[Realism (theatre)|Realism]]
*[[Dadaism]]
*[[Expressionism (theatre)|Expressionism]]
*[[Surrealism]] and the [[Theatre of Cruelty]]
*[[Theatre of the Absurd]]
*[[Postmodern theatre|Postmodernism]]
*[[Agitprop]]

After the great popularity of the British [[Edwardian musical comedies]], the American [[musical theatre]] came to dominate the musical stage, beginning with the [[Princess Theatre, New York City|Princess Theatre]] musicals, followed by the works of the Gershwin brothers, [[Cole Porter]], [[Jerome Kern]], [[Rodgers and Hart]], and later [[Rodgers and Hammerstein]].

== American theatre ==

=== 1752 to 1895 Romanticism ===

Throughout most of history, English [[belles lettres]] and theatre have been separated, but these two art forms are interconnected.<ref>((cite book |last1=Wilmeth |first1=Don B. |last2=Bigsby |first2=Christopher |title=The Cambridge History of American Theatre: Volume One: Beginnings to 1870 |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press))</ref> However, if they do not learn how to work hand-in-hand, it can be detrimental to the art form.<ref>((cite book |last1=Wilmeth |first1=Don B. |last2=Bigsby |first2=Christopher |title=The Cambridge History of American Theatre: Volume One: Beginnings to 1870 |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press))</ref> The prose of English literature and the stories it tells needs to be performed and theatre has that capacity.<ref>((cite book |last1=Wilmeth |first1=Don B. |last2=Bigsby |first2=Christopher |title=The Cambridge History of American Theatre: Volume One: Beginnings to 1870 |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press))</ref> From the start American theatre has been unique and diverse, reflecting society as [[America]] chased after its National identity.<ref>((cite book |last1=Wilmeth |first1=Don B. |last2=Bigsby |first2=Christopher |title=The Cambridge History of American Theatre: Volume One: Beginnings to 1870 |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press))</ref> The very first play performed, in 1752 in Williamsburg Virginia, was [[Shakespeare]]'s "The Merchant of Venice."<ref>((cite book |last1=Wilmeth |first1=Don B. |last2=Bigsby |first2=Christopher |title=The Cambridge History of American Theatre: Volume One: Beginnings to 1870 |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press))</ref> Due to a strong [[Christianity in the United States|Christian]] society, theatre was banned from 1774 until 1789.<ref name="History of the Theatre">((cite book |last1=Brockett |first1=Oscar G. |last2=Hildy |first2=Franklin J. |title=History of the Theatre |date=1999 |publisher=Allyn and Bacon |pages=692))</ref> This societal standard was due to the [[Bible]] being sacred and any other diversions (entertainment) were seen as inappropriate, frivolous (without purpose), and sensual (pleasurable).<ref>((cite book |last1=Wilmeth |first1=Don B. |last2=Bigsby |first2=Christopher |title=The Cambridge History of American Theatre: Volume One: Beginnings to 1870 |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press))</ref> During the ban, theatre often hid by titling itself as moral lectures.<ref>((cite book |last1=Wilmeth |first1=Don B. |last2=Bigsby |first2=Christopher |title=The Cambridge History of American Theatre: Volume One: Beginnings to 1870 |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press))</ref> Theatre took a brief pause because of the [[American Revolutionary War|revolutionary war]], but quickly resumed after the war ended in 1781.<ref name="History of the Theatre"/> Theatre began to spread [[American frontier|west]], and often towns had theatres before they had sidewalks or sewers.<ref>((cite book |last1=Wilmeth |first1=Don B. |last2=Bigsby |first2=Christopher |title=The Cambridge History of American Theatre: Volume One: Beginnings to 1870 |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press))</ref> There were several leading professional theatre companies early on, but one of the most influential was in [[Philadelphia]] (1794–1815); however, the company had shaky roots because of the ban on theatre.<ref name="History of the Theatre" />

As the country expanded so did theatre; following the [[war of 1812]] theatre headed west.<ref name="History of the Theatre" /> Many of the new theatres were [[community]] run, but in [[New Orleans]] a professional theatre had been started by the [[French colonial empire|French]] in 1791.<ref name="History of the Theatre" /> Several troupes broke off and established a theatre in [[Cincinnati Ohio|Cincinnati, Ohio]].<ref name="History of the Theatre" /> The first official west theatre came in 1815 when Samuel Drake (1769–1854) took his professional theatre company from [[Albany, New York|Albany]] to [[Pittsburgh]] to the [[Ohio River]] and [[Kentucky]].<ref name="History of the Theatre" /> Along with this circuit he would sometimes take the troupe to [[Lexington, Massachusetts|Lexington]], [[Louisville, Kentucky|Louisville]], and [[Frankfort, Ohio|Frankfort]].<ref name="History of the Theatre" /> At times, he would lead the troupe to [[Ohio]], [[Indiana]], [[Tennessee]], and [[Missouri]].<ref name="History of the Theatre" /> While there were circuit riding troupes, more permanent theatre communities out west often sat on rivers so there would be easy boat access.<ref name="History of the Theatre" /> During this time period very few theatres were above the Ohio River, and in fact [[Chicago]] did not have a permanent theatre until 1833.<ref name="History of the Theatre" /> Because of the turbulent times in America and the [[economic crisis]] happening due to wars, theatre during its most expansive time, experienced [[bankruptcy]] and change of management.<ref name="History of the Theatre" /> Also most early American theatre had great [[Europe]]an influence because many of the actors had been [[English Heritage|English born]] and [[English Schools|trained]].<ref name="History of the Theatre" /> Between 1800 and 1850 [[neoclassical philosophy]] almost completely passed away under [[romanticism]] which was a great influence of 19th century American theatre that idolized the "[[noble savage]]."<ref name="History of the Theatre" /> Due to new [[Psychology|psychological discoveries]] and acting methods, eventually romanticism would give birth to [[Theatrical realism|realism]].<ref name="History of the Theatre" /> This trend toward realism occurred between 1870 and 1895.<ref name="History of the Theatre" />

=== 1895 to 1945 Realism ===

In this era of theatre, the moral hero shifts to the modern man who is a product of his environment.<ref>((cite book |last1=Wilmeth |first1=Don B. |last2=Bigsby |first2=Christopher |title=The Cambridge History of American Theatre: Volume Two: 1870–1945 |date=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press))</ref> This major shift is due in part to the [[civil war]] because America was now stained with its own blood, having lost its [[innocence]].<ref>((cite book |last1=Wilmeth |first1=Don B. |last2=Bigsby |first2=Christopher |title=The Cambridge History of American Theatre: Volume Two: 1870–1945 |date=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press))</ref>

=== 1945 to 1990 ===

During this period of theatre, [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] emerged and threatened American theatre.<ref name="Cambridge University Press">((cite book |last1=Wilmeth |first1=Don B. |last2=Bigsby |first2=Christopher |title=The Cambridge History of American Theatre: Volume Three: Post-World War II to The 1990s |date=2000 |publisher=Cambridge University Press))</ref> However theatre during this time didn't decline but in fact was renowned and noticed worldwide.<ref name="Cambridge University Press"/> [[Tennessee Williams]] and [[Arthur Miller]] achieved worldwide fame during this period.

==African theatre==
===Egyptian theatre===
====Ancient Egyptian quasi-theatrical events====
The earliest recorded quasi-theatrical event dates back to 2000 BC with the "passion plays" of [[Ancient Egypt]]. The story of the god [[Osiris]] was performed annually at festivals throughout the civilization.<ref>((cite web |url=http://www.theatrehistory.com/origins/egypt001.html |title=Egyptian "Passion" Plays |publisher=Theatrehistory.com |access-date=2013-09-09 |archive-date=2014-01-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106045433/http://www.theatrehistory.com/origins/egypt001.html |url-status=live ))</ref>

====Modern Egyptian theater====

In the modern era, the art of theater was evolved in the second half of the nineteenth century through interaction with Europe. As well as the development of popular theatrical forms that Egypt knew thousands of years before this date.<ref>((Cite web |title=المسرح في مصر |website=State Information Service (Egypt) |date=2009-09-30 |url=https://www.sis.gov.eg/Story/1760/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AD-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1?lang=ar |language=ar |access-date=2022-05-03 |archive-date=2022-02-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220212130404/https://www.sis.gov.eg/Story/1760/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AD-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1?lang=ar |url-status=live ))</ref><ref>((Cite book |last1=Aḥmad |first1=Muḥammad Fattūḥ |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=asMsAAAAMAAJ&q=%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AD+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A |title=‏في المسرح المصري المعاصر :: ‏دراسة في النص المسرحي / |last2=فتوح |first2=احمد، محمد |date=1978 |publisher=مكتبة الشباب، |language=ar |access-date=2022-05-18 |archive-date=2022-09-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922071249/https://books.google.com/books?id=asMsAAAAMAAJ&q=%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AD+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A |url-status=live ))</ref><ref>((Cite book |last=Gitre |first=Carmen M. K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_dWrDwAAQBAJ&q=egyptian+theater+in+20th+century |title=Acting Egyptian: Theater, Identity, and Political Culture in Cairo, 1869–1930 |date=2019-12-02 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-1-4773-1918-5 |language=en |access-date=2022-05-18 |archive-date=2022-09-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922071249/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Acting_Egyptian/_dWrDwAAQBAJ?hl=en |url-status=live ))</ref>

The beginning was by [[Yaqub Sanu]] and [[Abu Khalil Qabbani]], then the situation was divided into free theatrical groups, including the [[Youssef Wahbi]] troupe such as [[Fatima Rushdi]], which presents tragedy or tragedy, and [[Abo El Seoud El Ebiary]], [[Ismail Yassine]], [[Badie' Khayri]], [[Ali El Kassar]] and [[Naguib el-Rihani|Naguib El-Rihani]] in presenting comedy in another way.<ref>((Cite book |last=حسين |first=عامر، سامى منير |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KPkKAAAAIAAJ&q=%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AD+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A |title=المسرح المصرى بعد الحرب العالمية الثانية بين الفن والنقد السياسى والإجتماعي |date=1978 |publisher=الهيئة المصرية العامة للكتاب ، |language=ar |access-date=2022-05-18 |archive-date=2022-09-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922071249/https://books.google.com/books?id=KPkKAAAAIAAJ&q=%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AD+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A |url-status=live ))</ref><ref>((Cite web |date=2019-02-20 |title=مراحل نشأة المسرح في مصر |url=https://www.albawabhnews.com/3494235 |access-date=2022-04-24 |website=www.albawabhnews.com |archive-date=2019-02-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190220232312/http://www.albawabhnews.com/3494235 |url-status=live ))</ref><ref>((Cite book |last1=Amin |first1=Dina A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nUILAQAAMAAJ&q=egyptian+theater+in+20th+century |title=Alfred Farag and Egyptian Theater: The Poetics of Disguise, with Four Short Plays and a Monologue |last2=Faraǧ |first2=Alfrīd |date=2008-10-27 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |isbn=978-0-8156-3163-7 |language=en |access-date=2022-05-18 |archive-date=2022-09-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922071323/https://books.google.com/books?id=nUILAQAAMAAJ&q=egyptian+theater+in+20th+century |url-status=live ))</ref>

More than 350 plays were presented in the so-called halls theater in the 1930s and 1940s, co-presented by [[Bayram al-Tunisi|Bayram El-Tunisi]], Amin Sedky, [[Badie' Khayri]] and [[Abo El Seoud El Ebiary]] and directed by Aziz Eid, [[Bishara Wakim]] and Abdel Aziz Khalil. In addition to important statistics, including that the longest-lived private sector group is the [[Naguib el-Rihani|Rihani band]]. Its activity lasted 67 years, starting from 1916 until 1983, nearly seventy years. The most prolific private sector group is the Ramses Troupe, which produced more than 240 plays from 1923 to 1960. The longest-lived state theater troupe is the National Theater Troupe, which lasted for over 80 years, starting from 1935 until now.<ref name="gate.ahram.org.eg">((Cite web |title=المسرح المصرى "150 عاما " من النضال والتألق |url=https://gate.ahram.org.eg/daily/News/203420/124/767203/%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AD/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AD-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%89-%C2%AB--%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7-%C2%BB-%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B6%D8%A7%D9%84-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%82.aspx |access-date=2022-04-24 |website=الأهرام اليومي |language=ar |archive-date=2022-02-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220212110853/https://gate.ahram.org.eg/daily/News/203420/124/767203/%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AD/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AD-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%89-%C2%AB--%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7-%C2%BB-%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B6%D8%A7%D9%84-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%82.aspx |url-status=live ))</ref><ref>((Cite web |date=2020-10-07 |title=From Comedy to Tragedy: A Brief History of the Evolution of Theatre in Egypt ((!)) Egyptian Streets |url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2020/10/07/from-comedy-to-tragedy-a-brief-history-of-the-evolution-of-theatre-in-egypt/ |access-date=2022-04-24 |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-01-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220105072749/https://egyptianstreets.com/2020/10/07/from-comedy-to-tragedy-a-brief-history-of-the-evolution-of-theatre-in-egypt/ |url-status=live ))</ref>

After the [[Egyptian revolution of 1952|1952 revolution]], there was a group of playwrights such as [[Alfred Farag]], and [[Ali Salem]], Noaman Ashour, Saad Eddin Wahba and others.  Zaki, as for the country teams, the most prolific directors in production are the artists Fattouh Nashati, and Zaki Tulaimat.<ref>((Cite web |title=History of Egyptian Art |url=http://www.cairo.gov.eg/en/Culture/Pages/History-of-Egyptian-Art.aspx |access-date=2022-04-24 |website=www.cairo.gov.eg |archive-date=2022-09-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922071252/http://www.cairo.gov.eg/en/Culture/Pages/History-of-Egyptian-Art.aspx |url-status=live ))</ref>

Among the Egyptian playwrights whose works were presented on stage are Amin Sedky, Badi’ Khairy, Abu Al-Saud Al-Ebiary, and Tawfiq Al-Hakim. Most of the world's playwrights whose works were presented on the stage are [[Molière|Molière]], [[Pierre Corneille]] and [[William Shakespeare]].<ref>((Cite journal |last=Allah |first=Amr Zakaria Abd |title=The Theory of Theatre for Egyptian Nationalists in the First Quarter of the Twentieth Century |date=2009 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25803091 |journal=Quaderni di Studi Arabi |volume=4 |pages=193–204 |jstor=25803091 |issn=1121-2306 |access-date=2022-04-24 |archive-date=2022-04-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424034250/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25803091 |url-status=live ))</ref><ref>((Cite web |title=Dilemmas of Egypt's National Theatre - Stage & Street - Arts & Culture |url=https://english.ahram.org.eg/News/114505.aspx |access-date=2022-04-24 |website=Ahram Online |archive-date=2022-04-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424034250/https://english.ahram.org.eg/News/114505.aspx |url-status=live ))</ref>

The women's imprint was clear in the history of Egyptian theater, which [[Mounira El Mahdeya]] started as the first Egyptian singer and actress, and the founder of a theater group in her name at the beginning of the twentieth century instead of Levantines and Jews. Before that time, women were forbidden to act, which caused a noise that contributed to the increase in her fame. And Mounira El Mahdeya was also the one who discovered the musician of the generations, [[Mohammed Abdel Wahab]], and gave him the opportunity to complete the melodies of Cleopatra and Mark Antony's play after the sudden death of [[Sayed Darwish]]. She encouraged him to stand in front of her, embodying the role of Mark Antonio in the same show. Starting from early 1960s, movie stars started invading theaters such as [[Salah Zulfikar]] in ''[[A Bullet in the Heart (play)|A Bullet in the Heart]]'' of 1964, based on [[Tawfiq al-Hakim|Tawfiq Al-Hakim]]'s 1933 novel, and many others. In the 1970s, the comedy was the dominant such as ''[[Al Ayal Kibrit]]'' of 1979.

In 2020, the [[Ministry of Culture (Egypt)|Egyptian Minister of Culture]], Dr.  [[Ines Abdel-Dayem]] dedicates the next session of the National Festival of Egyptian Theater to celebrate the 150th anniversary of the beginning of the modern Egyptian theater.  It will review the findings of the research team, consisting of [[Amr Dawara]], the theater memory guard, who started since 1993 to prepare the largest Egyptian theater encyclopedia that includes all the details of professional theatrical performances during fifteen decades, starting from 1870 by Yacub Sanu until 2019, during which the number of performances reached 6300 professional works, which were presented to the public for a fee at the box office. And addressed the book body to print the encyclopedia. And that encyclopedia will help the reader and researcher to know the masterpieces and creations of Egyptian theater throughout its history.<ref>((Cite thesis|type=MFA|title=Egyptian theatre and its impact on society: History, deterioration, and path for rehabilitation|first=Salma S.|last=Zohdi|date=2016|publisher=Columbia University|url=https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/download/fedora_content/download/ac:199097/content/Thesis_Final_Salma_S._Zohdi__2_.pdf|access-date=2022-04-24|archive-date=2016-06-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160622031009/http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/download/fedora_content/download/ac:199097/CONTENT/Thesis_Final_Salma_S._Zohdi__2_.pdf|url-status=live))</ref><ref>((Cite journal |last=Gitre |first=Carmen M. K. |date=2015 |title=The Dramatic Middle East: Performance as History in Egypt and Beyond |url=https://www.academia.edu/18930348 |journal=History Compass |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=521–532 |doi=10.1111/hic3.12281 |issn=1478-0542 |access-date=2022-04-24 |archive-date=2022-09-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922071250/https://www.academia.edu/18930348 |url-status=live ))</ref><ref name="gate.ahram.org.eg"/>

===West African theatre===
====Ghanaian theatre====
Modern theatre in [[Ghana]] emerged in the early 20th century.<ref name="ReferenceA">((cite journal|last1=Abarry|first1=Abu|title=The Significance of Names in Ghanaian Drama|journal=Journal of Black Studies|date=Dec 1991|volume=22|issue=2|pages=157–167|doi=10.1177/002193479102200201|s2cid=142717092))</ref>
It emerged first as literary comment on the colonization of Africa by Europe.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Among the earliest work in which this can be seen is ''The Blinkards'' written by [[Kobina Sekyi]] in 1915. ''The Blinkards'' is a blatant satire about the Africans who embraced the European culture that was brought to them. In it Sekyi demeans three groups of individuals: anyone European, anyone who imitates the Europeans, and the rich African cocoa farmer. This sudden rebellion though was just the beginning spark of Ghanaian literary theatre.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

A play that has similarity in its satirical view is ''[[Anowa]]''. Written by Ghanaian author [[Ama Ata Aidoo]], it begins with its eponymous heroine Anowa rejecting her many arranged suitors' marriage proposals. She insists on making her own decisions as to whom she is going to marry. The play stresses the need for gender equality, and respect for women.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> This ideal of independence, as well as equality leads Anowa down a winding path of both happiness and misery. Anowa chooses a man of her own to marry. Anowa supports her husband Kofi both physically and emotionally. Through her support Kofi does prosper in wealth, but becomes poor as a spiritual being. Through his accumulation of wealth Kofi loses himself in it. His once happy marriage with Anowa becomes changed when he begins to hire slaves rather than doing any labor himself. This to Anowa does not make sense because it makes Kofi no better than the European colonists whom she detests for the way that she feels they have used the people of Africa. Their marriage is childless, which is presumed to have been caused by a ritual that Kofi has done trading his manhood for wealth. Anowa's viewing Kofi's slave-gotten wealth and inability to have a child leads to her committing suicide.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The name Anowa means "Superior moral force" while Kofi's means only "Born on Friday". This difference in even the basis of their names seems to implicate the moral superiority of women in a male run society.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

Another play of significance is ''The Marriage of Anansewa'', written in 1975 by [[Efua Sutherland]]. The entire play is based upon an Akan oral tradition called ''Anansesem'' (folk tales). The main character of the play is [[Ananse]] (the spider). The qualities of Ananse are one of the most prevalent parts of the play. Ananse is cunning, selfish, has great insight into human and animal nature, is ambitious, eloquent, and resourceful. By putting too much of himself into everything that he does Ananse ruins each of his schemes and ends up poor.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Ananse is used in the play as a kind of Everyman. He is written in an exaggerated sense in order to force the process of self-examination. Ananse is used as a way to spark a conversation for change in the society of anyone reading. The play tells of Ananse attempting to marry off his daughter Anansewa off to any of a selection of rich chiefs, or another sort of wealthy suitor simultaneously, in order to raise money. Eventually all the suitors come to his house at once, and he has to use all of his cunning to defuse the situation.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The storyteller not only narrates but also enacts, reacts to, and comments on the action of the tale. Along with this, Mbuguous is used, Mbuguous is the name given to very specialized sect of Ghanaian theatre technique that allows for audience participation. The Mbuguous of this tale are songs that embellish the tale or comment on it. Spontaneity through this technique as well as improvisation are used enough to meet any standard of modern theatre.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

====Yoruba theatre====
((See also|Yoruba literature))
In his pioneering study of [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] theatre, Joel Adedeji traced its origins to the [[Masquerade ceremony|masquerade]] of the [[Egungun]] (the "cult of the ancestor").<ref>Adedeji (1969, 60).</ref> The traditional [[ceremony]] culminates in the essence of the masquerade where it is deemed that ancestors return to the world of the living to visit their descendants.<ref>Noret (2008, 26).</ref> In addition to its origin in ritual, Yoruba theatre can be "traced to the 'theatrogenic' nature of a number of the deities in the [[Orisha#Pantheon|Yoruba pantheon]], such as [[Obatala]] the arch divinity, [[Ogoun|Ogun]] the divinity of creativeness, as well as Iron and technology,<ref>((cite book|last1=Gilbert|first1=Helen|title=Postcolonial Plays:An Anthology|date=May 31, 2001|publisher=Routledge))</ref> and [[Shango|Sango]] the divinity of the storm", whose reverence is imbued "with drama and theatre and the symbolic overall relevance in terms of its relative interpretation."<ref>Banham, Hill, and Woodyard (2005, 88).</ref>

The [[Aláàrìnjó]] theatrical tradition sprang from the Egungun masquerade in the 16th century. The Aláàrìnjó was a troupe of traveling performers whose masked forms carried an air of mystique. They created short, [[Satire|satirical]] scenes that drew on a number of established stereotypical characters. Their performances utilised [[mime]], music and [[acrobatics]]. The Aláàrìnjó tradition influenced the popular traveling theatre, which was the most prevalent and highly developed form of theatre in [[Nigeria]] from the 1950s to the 1980s. In the 1990s, the popular traveling theatre moved into television and film and now gives live performances only rarely.<ref>Banham, Hill, and Woodyard (2005, 88–89).</ref><ref>Blench Roger M(2000). Grove Encyclopaedia of Music and Musicians Oxford University Press. ((ISBN|1-56159-239-0))</ref>

"Total theatre" also developed in Nigeria in the 1950s. It utilised non-Naturalistic techniques, [[Surrealism|surrealistic]] physical imagery, and exercised a flexible use of language. Playwrights writing in the mid-1970s made use of some of these techniques, but articulated them with "a radical appreciation of the problems of society."<ref>Banham, Hill, and Woodyard (2005, 70).</ref>

Traditional performance modes have strongly influenced the major figures in contemporary Nigerian theatre. The work of [[Hubert Ogunde]] (sometimes referred to as the "father of contemporary Yoruban theatre") was informed by the Aláàrìnjó tradition and Egungun masquerades.<ref>Banham, Hill, and Woodyard (2005, 76).</ref> [[Wole Soyinka]], who is "generally recognized as Africa's greatest living playwright", gives the divinity Ogun a complex [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] significance in his work.<ref>Banham, Hill, and Woodyard (2005, 69).</ref> In his essay "The Fourth Stage" (1973),<ref>Soyinka (1973, 120).</ref> Soyinka contrasts Yoruba drama with [[Theatre of ancient Greece|classical Athenian drama]], relating both to the 19th-century German philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]'s analysis of the latter in ''[[The Birth of Tragedy]]'' (1872). Ogun, he argues, is "a totality of the [[Apollonian and Dionysian|Dionysian, Apollonian]] and [[Prometheus|Promethean]] virtues."<ref>Soyinka (1973).</ref>

The proponents of the travelling theatre in Nigeria include [[Duro Ladipo]] and [[Moses Olaiya]] (a popular comic act). These practitioners contributed much to the field of African theatre during the period of mixture and experimentation of the indigenous with the Western theatre.

===African Diaspora theatre===
====African-American theatre====
The history of African-American theatre has a dual origin. The first is rooted in local theatre where African Americans performed in cabins and parks. Their performances (folk tales, songs, music, and dance) were rooted in the African culture before being influenced by the American environment. [[African Grove Theatre]] was the first African-American theatre established in 1821 by William Henry Brown.<ref>((cite book|title=African American theatre: an historical and critical analysis |first=Samuel A. |last=Hay |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-44522-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/africanamericant0000hays))</ref>

==Asian theatre==
[[File:Mani Damodara Chakyar as Nayaka.jpg|thumb|[[Mani Damodara Chakyar]] as King Udayana in [[Bhasa]]'s ''Swapnavasavadattam [[Koodiyattam]]''-the only surviving ancient [[Sanskrit drama|Sanskrit theatre]].]]

===Indian theatre===

====Overview of Indian theatre====
((Main|Theatre of India))
The earliest form of [[India]]n theatre was the [[Sanskrit drama|Sanskrit theatre]].<ref>Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 12).</ref> It emerged sometime between the 15th century BC and the 1st century and flourished between the 1st century and the 10th, which was a period of relative peace in the [[history of India]] during which hundreds of plays were written.<ref>Brandon (1997, 70) and Richmond (1995, 516).</ref> Vedic texts such as the [[Rigveda]] provide evidence of drama plays being enacted during [[Yajna]] ceremonies. The dialogues mentioned in the texts range from one person monologue to three-person dialogue, for instance, the dialogue between Indra, Indrani and Vrishakapi. The dialogues are not only religious in their context but also secular for instance one rigvedic monologue is about a gambler whose life is ruined because of it and has estranged his wife and his parents also hate him. Panini in 5th century BC mentions a dramatic text Natasutra written by two Indian dramatists Shilalin and Krishashva. Patanjali also mentions the name of plays which have been lost such as kemsavadha and Balibandha. Sitabenga caves dating back to 3rd century BC and [[Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves|Khandagiri caves]] from 2nd century BC are the earliest examples of theatre architecture in India.<ref>((Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyxOHOCVcVkC&q=shatapatha+brahmana+drama&pg=PA37|title=History of Indian Theatre|last1=Varadpande|first1=M. L.|last2=Varadpande|first2=Manohar Laxman|date=1987|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-221-5|language=en|access-date=2020-11-28|archive-date=2021-05-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518154812/https://books.google.com/books?id=SyxOHOCVcVkC&q=shatapatha+brahmana+drama&pg=PA37|url-status=live))</ref>  With the [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent|Islamic conquests]] that began in the 10th and 11th centuries, theatre was discouraged or forbidden entirely.<ref>Brandon (1997, 72) and Richmond (1995, 516).</ref> Later, in an attempt to re-assert indigenous values and ideas, village theatre was encouraged across the subcontinent, developing in a large number of regional languages from the 15th to the 19th centuries.<ref>Brandon (1997, 72), Richmond (1995, 516), and Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 12).</ref> Modern Indian theatre developed during the [[British Raj|period of colonial rule]] under the [[British Empire]], from the mid-19th century until the mid-20th.<ref>Richmond (1995, 516) and Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 13).</ref>

==== Sanskrit theatre ====
((Main|Sanskrit drama))
((See also|Koodiyattam))
The earliest-surviving fragments of Sanskrit drama date from the 1st century.<ref>Brandon (1981, xvii) and Richmond (1995, 516–517).</ref> The wealth of archaeological evidence from earlier periods offers no indication of the existence of a tradition of theatre.<ref name="Richmond 1995, 516">Richmond (1995, 516).</ref> The ''[[Vedas]]'' (the earliest Indian literature, from between 1500 and 600 BC) contain no hint of it; although a small number of hymns are composed in a form of dialogue, the [[ritual]]s of the [[Vedic period]] do not appear to have developed into theatre.<ref name="Richmond 1995, 516"/> The ''[[Mahābhāṣya]]'' by [[Patañjali]] contains the earliest reference to what may have been the seeds of Sanskrit drama.<ref name="Richmond 1995, 517">Richmond (1995, 517).</ref> This treatise on [[grammar]] from 140 BC provides a feasible date for the beginnings of [[theatre in India]].<ref name="Richmond 1995, 517"/>

However, although there are no surviving fragments of any drama prior to this date, it is possible that early Buddhist literature provides the earliest evidence for the existence of Indian theatre. The [[Pali]] [[Sutta Pitaka|suttas]] (ranging in date from the 5th to 3rd centuries BCE) refer to the existence of troupes of actors (led by a chief actor), who performed dramas on a stage. It is indicated that these dramas incorporated dance, but were listed as a distinct form of performance, alongside dancing, singing, and story recitations.<ref>Rachel Van M. Baumer and James R. Brandon (ed.), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ix-RShGgZUAC&dq=actor+drama+pali&pg=PA11 ''Sanskrit Drama in Performance''] ((Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217174002/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ix-RShGgZUAC&pg=PA11&dq=actor+drama+pali#v=onepage&q=actor%20drama%20pali&f=false |date=2021-02-17 )) (University of Hawaii Press, 1981), pp.11</ref> (According to later Buddhist texts, King [[Bimbisara]], a contemporary of [[Gautama Buddha]], had a drama performed for another king. This would be as early as the 5th century BCE, but the event is only described in much later texts, from the 3rd-4th centuries CE.)<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ix-RShGgZUAC&dq=actor+drama+pali&pg=PA11 ''Sanskrit Drama in Performance''] ((Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217174002/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ix-RShGgZUAC&pg=PA11&dq=actor+drama+pali#v=onepage&q=actor%20drama%20pali&f=false |date=2021-02-17 )), p.11</ref>

The major source of evidence for Sanskrit theatre is ''[[Natyashastra|A Treatise on Theatre]]'' (''Nātyaśāstra''), a compendium whose date of composition is uncertain (estimates range from 200 BC to 200 AD) and whose authorship is attributed to [[Bharata Muni]]. The ''Treatise'' is the most complete work of dramaturgy in the ancient world. It addresses [[acting]], [[dance]], [[music]], [[Dramaturgy|dramatic construction]], [[stagecraft|architecture]], [[Costume design|costuming]], [[Theatrical makeup|make-up]], [[Theatrical properties|props]], the organisation of companies, the audience, competitions, and offers a [[Hindu mythology|mythological]] account of the origin of theatre.<ref name="Richmond 1995, 517"/> In doing so, it provides indications about the nature of actual theatrical practices. Sanskrit theatre was performed on sacred ground by priests who had been trained in the necessary skills (dance, music, and recitation) in a [hereditary process]. Its aim was both to educate and to entertain.

Under the patronage of royal courts, performers belonged to professional companies that were directed by a stage manager (''sutradhara''), who may also have acted.<ref>Brandon (1981, xvii) and Richmond (1995, 517).</ref> This task was thought of as being analogous to that of a [[Puppetry|puppeteer]]—the literal meaning of "''sutradhara''" is "holder of the strings or threads".<ref name="Richmond 1995, 517"/> The performers were trained rigorously in vocal and physical technique.<ref>Richmond (1995, 518).</ref> There were no prohibitions against female performers; companies were all-male, all-female, and of mixed gender. Certain sentiments were considered inappropriate for men to enact, however, and were thought better suited to women. Some performers played character their own age, while others played those different from their own (whether younger or older). Of all the elements of theatre, the ''Treatise'' gives most attention to acting (''abhinaya''), which consists of two styles: realistic (''lokadharmi'') and conventional (''natyadharmi''), though the major focus is on the latter.<ref>Richmond (1995, 518). The literal meaning of ''abhinaya'' is "to carry forwards".</ref>

Its drama is regarded as the highest achievement of [[Sanskrit literature]].<ref name="Brandon 1981, xvii">Brandon (1981, xvii).</ref> It utilised [[stock character]]s, such as the hero (((transliteration|sa|nayaka))), heroine (((transliteration|sa|nayika))), or clown (((transliteration|sa|vidusaka))). Actors may have specialised in a particular type. [[Kālidāsa]] in the 1st century BC, is arguably considered to be ancient [[India]]'s greatest Sanskrit dramatist. Three famous romantic plays written by Kālidāsa are the ''[[Mālavikāgnimitram]]'' (''Mālavikā and Agnimitra''), ''[[Vikramuurvashiiya]]'' (''Pertaining to Vikrama and Urvashi''), and ''[[The Recognition of Sakuntala|Abhijñānaśākuntala]]'' (''The Recognition of Shakuntala''). The last was inspired by a story in the ''Mahabharata'' and is the most famous. It was the first to be translated into [[English language|English]] and [[German language|German]]. ''[[Abhijñānaśākuntalam|Śakuntalā]]'' (in English translation) influenced [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe's]] ''[[Goethe's Faust|Faust]]'' (1808–1832).<ref name="Brandon 1981, xvii"/>

The next great Indian dramatist was [[Bhavabhuti]] (c. 7th century). He is said to have written the following three plays: ''Malati-Madhava'', ''Mahaviracharita'' and ''Uttar Ramacharita''. Among these three, the last two cover between them the entire epic of ''Ramayana''. The powerful Indian emperor [[Harsha]] (606–648) is credited with having written three plays: the comedy ''[[Ratnavali]]'', ''[[Priyadarsika]]'', and the [[Buddhist]] drama ''[[Nagananda]]''.

====Traditional Indian theatre====
((Unreferenced section|date=March 2022))((Main|Theatre of India))
[[Kutiyattam]] is the only surviving specimen of the ancient Sanskrit theatre, thought to have originated around the beginning of the [[Common Era]], and is officially recognised by [[UNESCO]] as a [[Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity]]. In addition, many forms of Indian folk theatre abound. [[Bhavai]] (strolling players) is a popular folk theatre form of [[Gujarat]], said to have arisen in the 14th century AD. [[Bhaona]] and [[Ankiya Nat]]s have been practicing in [[Assam]] since the early 16th century which were created and initiated by [[Mahapurusha Srimanta Sankardeva]]. [[Jatra (Bengal)|Jatra]] has been popular in [[Bengal]] and its origin is traced to the Bhakti movement in the 16th century. Another folk theatre form popular in [[Haryana]], Uttar Pradesh and [[Malwa]] region of [[Madhya Pradesh]] is [[Swang (dance drama)|Swang]], which is dialogue-oriented rather than movement-oriented and is considered to have arisen in its present form in the late 18th – early 19th centuries. [[Yakshagana]] is a very popular theatre art in Karnataka and has existed under different names at least since the 16th century. It is semi-classical in nature and involves music and songs based on [[carnatic music]], rich costumes, storylines based on the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and ''[[Ramayana]].'' It also employs spoken dialogue in-between its songs that gives it a [[folk art]] flavour. [[Kathakali]] is a form of dance-drama, characteristic of [[Kerala]], that arose in the 17th century, developing from the temple-art plays [[Krishnanattam]] and [[Ramanattam]].

====Kathakali====
((Main|Kathakali))
[[Kathakali]] is a highly stylised classical Indian dance-drama noted for the attractive make-up of characters, elaborate costumes, detailed gestures, and well-defined body movements presented in tune with the anchor playback music and complementary percussion. It originated in the country's present-day state of [[Kerala]] during the 17th century<ref>Zarrilli (1984<!-- PAGE NUMBER OF THIS QUOTATION? -->).</ref> and has developed over the years with improved looks, refined gestures and added themes besides more ornate singing and precise drumming.

====Modern Indian theatre====
[[Rabindranath Tagore]] was a pioneering modern playwright who wrote plays noted for their exploration and questioning of nationalism, identity, spiritualism and material greed.<ref name="Banham 1995, 1051">Banham (1995, 1051).</ref> His plays are written in [[Bengali language|Bengali]] and include ''Chitra'' (''Chitrangada'', 1892), ''The King of the Dark Chamber'' (''Raja'', 1910), ''[[The Post Office (play)|The Post Office]]'' (''Dakghar'', 1913), and ''Red Oleander'' (''Raktakarabi'', 1924).<ref name="Banham 1995, 1051"/>

===Chinese theatre===
((More citations needed section|date=April 2011))
((Main|Theatre of China))

====Shang theatre====
There are references to theatrical entertainments in China as early as 1500 BC during the [[Shang dynasty]]; they often involved music, clowning and acrobatic displays.

====Han and Tang theatre====
During the Han dynasty, shadow puppetry first emerged as a recognized form of theatre in China. There were two distinct forms of shadow puppetry, Cantonese southern and Pekingese northern. The two styles were differentiated by the method of making the puppets and the positioning of the rods on the puppets, as opposed to the type of play performed by the puppets. Both styles generally performed plays depicting great adventure and fantasy, rarely was this very stylized form of theatre used for political propaganda. Cantonese shadow puppets were the larger of the two. They were built using thick leather which created more substantial shadows. Symbolic color was also very prevalent; a black face represented honesty, a red one bravery. The rods used to control Cantonese puppets were attached perpendicular to the puppets' heads. Thus, they were not seen by the audience when the shadow was created. Pekingese puppets were more delicate and smaller. They were created out of thin, translucent leather usually taken from the belly of a donkey. They were painted with vibrant paints, thus they cast a very colorful shadow. The thin rods which controlled their movements were attached to a leather collar at the neck of the puppet. The rods ran parallel to the bodies of the puppet then turned at a ninety degree angle to connect to the neck. While these rods were visible when the shadow was cast, they laid outside the shadow of the puppet; thus they did not interfere with the appearance of the figure. The rods attached at the necks to facilitate the use of multiple heads with one body. When the heads were not being used, they were stored in a muslin book or fabric lined box. The heads were always removed at night. This was in keeping with the old superstition that if left intact, the puppets would come to life at night. Some puppeteers went so far as to store the heads in one book and the bodies in another, to further reduce the possibility of reanimating puppets. Shadow puppetry is said to have reached its highest point of artistic development in the 11th century before becoming a tool of the government.

The Tang dynasty is sometimes known as 'The Age of 1000 Entertainments'. During this era, [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang China|Emperor Xuanzong]] formed an acting school known as the Children of the [[Pear Garden]] to produce a form of drama that was primarily musical.

====Song and Yuan theatre====
((Further|Zaju))
In the [[Song dynasty]], there were many popular plays involving [[acrobatic]]s and music. These developed in the [[Yuan dynasty]] into a more sophisticated form with a four- or five-act structure.

Yuan drama spread across China and diversified into numerous regional forms, the best known of which is Beijing Opera, which is still popular today.

===Indonesian theatre===
((Main|Theatre of Indonesia|Balinese theatre))
[[File:Ramayana Java.jpg|thumb|[[Wayang Wong]] theatre performance near [[Prambanan]] temple complex]]

Indonesian theatre has become an important part of local culture, theater performances in [[Indonesia]] have been developed for hundreds of years. Most of [[Theatre of Indonesia|Indonesia's]] older theatre forms are linked directly to local literary traditions (oral and written). The prominent [[puppet theatre]]s — [[wayang golek]] (wooden rod-puppet play) of the [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]] and [[wayang kulit]] (leather shadow-puppet play) of the [[Javanese culture|Javanese]] and [[Balinese culture|Balinese]]—draw much of their repertoire from indigenized versions of the [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]]. These tales also provide source material for the wayang wong (human theatre) of [[Java]] and [[Bali]], which uses actors. Wayang wong is a type of classical [[Javanese dance]] theatrical performance with themes taken from episodes of the Ramayana or Mahabharata. The bas relief panels on the 9th-century of [[Prambanan]] temple show episodes of the Ramayana epic. The adaptation of Mahabharata episodes has been integrated in the Javanese literature tradition since the Kahuripan and Kediri era, with notable examples such as [[Arjunawiwaha]], composed by Mpu Kanwa in the 11th century. The [[Penataran]] temple in East Java depicts themes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata in its bas reliefs. Wayang wong was a performance in the style of wayang kulit (the shadow theatre of Central Java) wherein actors and actresses took the puppets' roles. The first written reference to the form is on the stone inscription Wimalarama from East Java dated 930 CE. The genre is currently done in masked and unmasked variations in [[Central Java]], [[Bali]], and [[Cirebon]], as well as in [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]] ([[West Java]]).<ref>(( cite journal | author = Garrett Kam | title = ''Wayang Wong'' in the Court of Yogyakarta: The Enduring Significance of Javanese Dance Drama | journal = Asian Theatre Journal | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 29–51 | date = Spring 1987 | doi = 10.2307/1124435 | jstor = 1124435 ))</ref><ref name="Rubin2001p184">((cite book|author1=Don Rubin|author2=Chua Soo Pong|author3=Ravi Chaturvedi|display-authors=etal|title=The World Encyclopedia of Contemporary Theatre: Asia/Pacific|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=maGU4ziPQJQC&pg=PA184|year=2001|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-26087-9|pages=184–186|access-date=2021-06-03|archive-date=2020-08-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819143936/https://books.google.com/books?id=maGU4ziPQJQC&pg=PA184|url-status=live))</ref><ref>((citation |url= http://repositori.kemdikbud.go.id/10550/1/Pengetahuan%20Teater%201%20sejarah%20dan%20unsur%201.pdf |title= PENGETAHUAN TEATER |work= Kemdikbud |access-date= 2021-06-03 |archive-date= 2021-06-03 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210603101413/http://repositori.kemdikbud.go.id/10550/1/Pengetahuan%20Teater%201%20sejarah%20dan%20unsur%201.pdf |url-status= live ))</ref>

===Khmer theatre===
In [[Cambodia]], at the ancient capital [[Angkor Wat]], stories from the Indian epics ''Ramayana'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]'' have been carved on the walls of temples and palaces.

===Thai theatre===
((Further|Ramakien))
In [[Thailand]], it has been a tradition from the Middle Ages to stage plays based on plots drawn from Indian epics. In particular, the theatrical version of Thailand's national epic ''[[Ramakien]]'', a version of the Indian ''Ramayana'', remains popular in Thailand even today.

===Philippine theatre===
During the 333-year reign of the Spanish government, they introduced into the islands the Catholic religion and the Spanish way of life, which gradually merged with the indigenous culture to form the “lowland folk culture” now shared by the major ethnolinguistic groups. Today, the dramatic forms introduced or influenced by Spain continue to live in rural areas all over the archipelago. These forms include the komedya, the playlets, the sinakulo, the sarswela, and the drama. In recent years, some of these forms have been revitalized to make them more responsive to the conditions and needs of a developing nation.

===Japanese theatre===
((Further|Theatre of Japan))

====Noh====
((Main|Noh))
During the 14th century, there were small companies of actors in Japan who performed short, sometimes vulgar comedies. A director of one of these companies, Kan'ami (1333–1384), had a son, [[Zeami Motokiyo]] (1363–1443) who was considered one of the finest child actors in Japan. When Kan'ami's company performed for [[Ashikaga Yoshimitsu]] (1358–1408), the Shōgun of Japan, he implored Zeami to have a court education for his arts. After Zeami succeeded his father, he continued to perform and adapt his style into what is today [[Noh]]. A mixture of [[pantomime]] and vocal acrobatics, this style has fascinated the Japanese for hundreds of years.

====Bunraku====
((Main|Bunraku))
Japan, after a long period of civil wars and political disarray, was unified and at peace primarily due to shōgun Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543–1616). However, alarmed at increasing Christian growth, he cut off contact from Japan to Europe and China and outlawed Christianity. When peace did come, a flourish of cultural influence and growing merchant class demanded its own entertainment. The first form of theatre to flourish was Ningyō jōruri (commonly referred to as [[Bunraku]]). The founder of and main contributor to Ningyō jōruri, [[Chikamatsu Monzaemon]] (1653–1725), turned his form of theatre into a true art form. Ningyō jōruri is a highly stylized form of theatre using puppets, today about 1/3d the size of a human. The men who control the puppets train their entire lives to become master puppeteers, when they can then operate the puppet's head and right arm and choose to show their faces during the performance. The other puppeteers, controlling the less important limbs of the puppet, cover themselves and their faces in a black suit, to imply their invisibility. The dialogue is handled by a single person, who uses varied tones of voice and speaking manners to simulate different characters. Chikamatsu wrote thousands of plays during his career, most of which are still used today. They wore masks instead of elaborate makeup. Masks define their gender, personality, and moods the actor is in.

====Kabuki====
((Main|Kabuki))
Kabuki began shortly after Bunraku, legend has it by an actress named Okuni, who lived around the end of the 16th century. Most of Kabuki's material came from Nõ and Bunraku, and its erratic dance-type movements are also an effect of Bunraku. However, Kabuki is less formal and more distant than Nõ, yet very popular among the Japanese public. Actors are trained in many varied things including dancing, singing, pantomime, and even acrobatics. Kabuki was first performed by young girls, then by young boys, and by the end of the 16th century, Kabuki companies consisted of all men. The men who portrayed women on stage were specifically trained to elicit the essence of a woman in their subtle movements and gestures.

====Butoh====
[[File:Gyohei Zaitsu Butoh.jpg|thumb|Gyohei Zaitsu performing [[Butoh]]]]
((Main|Butoh))
[[Butoh]] is the collective name for a diverse range of activities, techniques and motivations for dance, performance, or movement inspired by the ((nihongo|'''Ankoku-Butoh'''|[[wikt:暗黒|暗黒]]舞踏|ankoku butō|extra1=roughly, "dark steps")) movement. It typically involves playful and grotesque imagery, taboo topics, extreme or absurd environments, and is traditionally performed in white body makeup with slow hyper-controlled motion, with or without an audience. There is no set style, and it may be purely conceptual with no movement at all. Its origins have been attributed to Japanese dance legends [[Tatsumi Hijikata]] and [[Kazuo Ohno]]. Butoh appeared first in Japan following [[World War II]] and specifically after [[student riot]]s. The roles of [[authority]] were now subject to challenge and subversion. It also appeared as a reaction against the contemporary dance scene in Japan, which Hijikata felt was based on the one hand on imitating the West and on the other on imitating the [[Noh]]. He critiqued the current state of dance as overly superficial.

=== Turkish theatre ===
1st mention of theatre plays in [[Ottoman empire]] connected with appear of Spanish Jews there in the end of fifteenth - sixteenth centuries. Later other minorities, like Roma, Greeks, and Armenian became involved in the field. Afterwards Turkish equivalent of [[commedia dell'arte]] - the ''[[Orta oyunu]]'' became very popular all over the Empire.<ref>Bernard Lewis, "What Went Wrong? The Clash between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East", ((ISBN|0-06-051605-4)), 2003, pp. 141 - 142</ref>

=== Persian theatre ===
((Main|Persian theatre))

====Medieval Islamic theatre====
The most popular forms of theatre in the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]] were [[Puppetry|puppet theatre]] (which included [[Puppet|hand puppets]], [[shadow play]]s and [[marionette]] productions) and live [[passion play]]s known as ''[[Ta'zieh|ta'ziya]]'', in which actors re-enact episodes from [[Muslim history]]. In particular, [[Shia Islam]]ic plays revolved around the ''[[shahid|shaheed]]'' (martyrdom) of [[Ali]]'s sons [[Hasan ibn Ali]] and [[Husayn ibn Ali]]. Secular plays known as ''akhraja'' were recorded in medieval ''[[Adab (behavior)|adab]]'' literature, though they were less common than puppetry and ''ta'ziya'' theatre.<ref>Moreh (1986, 565–601).</ref>

==See also==
((Portal|History|Theatre))
* [[Antitheatricality]]
* [[The Cambridge History of British Theatre]]
* [[Development of musical theatre]]
* [[History of art]]
* [[History of dance]]
* [[History of figure skating]]
* [[History of film]]
* [[History of literature]]
* [[History of opera]]
* [[History of professional wrestling]]
* [[History of television]]
* [[Play (theatre)]]
* [[Radio drama]]

==Notes==
((Notelist|30em))

==References==
((Reflist|22em))

==Sources==
((refbegin|30em))
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* Taxidou, Olga. 2004. ''Tragedy, Modernity and Mourning''. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP. ((ISBN|0-7486-1987-9)).
* Thornbrough, Emma Lou. 1996. ''The Ancient Greeks.'' Acton, MA: Copley. ((ISBN|978-0-87411-860-5)).
* Tsitsiridis, Stavros, "Greek Mime in the Roman Empire (P.Oxy. 413: ''Charition'' and ''Moicheutria''", [https://web.archive.org/web/20140413213858/http://www.logeion.upatras.gr/index.php/component/content/article?id=83 ''Logeion'' 1 (2011) 184–232.]
* [[Jean-Pierre Vernant|Vernant, Jean-Pierre]], and [[Pierre Vidal-Naquet]]. 1988. ''Myth and Tragedy in Ancient Greece.'' Trans. Janet Lloyd. New York: Zone Books, 1990.
* Walton, J. Michael. 1997. Introduction. In ''Plays VI.'' By Euripides. Methuen Classical Greek Dramatists ser. London: Methuen. vii–xxii. ((ISBN|0-413-71650-3)).
* [[Raymond Williams|Williams, Raymond]]. 1966. ''Modern Tragedy''. London: Chatto & Windus. ((ISBN|0-7011-1260-3)).
* Zarrilli, Phillip B. 1984. ''The Kathakali Complex: Actor, Performance and Structure.'' [S.l.]: South Asia Books. ((ISBN|978-0-391-03029-9)).
((refend))

==External links==
((Commons category|History of theatre))
((Wikibooks|History of Western Theatre: Greeks to Elizabethans))
((Wikibooks|History of Western Theatre: 17th Century to Now))
*[http://www.vam.ac.uk/page/t/theatre-history/ Theatre Collections of the Victoria and Albert Museum], with information and archive material
*[http://www.bris.ac.uk/theatrecollection/ University of Bristol Theatre Collection], [[University of Bristol]]
*[http://www.arthurlloyd.co.uk/index.html Music Hall and Theatre History] – an archive of historical information and material on British Theatre and Music Hall buildings.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100402061014/http://world-theatres.com/longruns.html#longruns.london.html Long running plays (over 400 performances) on Broadway, Off-Broadway, London, Toronto, Melbourne, Paris, Vienna, and Berlin]
*[http://www.apgrd.ox.ac.uk/ ''APGRD Database'' (Archive of Performances of Greek and Roman Drama)], University of Oxford, ed. Amanda Wrigley
*[http://webapps.langara.bc.ca:8080/wtob/index.jsp Women's Theatre History: Online Bibliography and Searchable Database] ((Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303215221/http://webapps.langara.bc.ca:8080/wtob/index.jsp |date=2016-03-03 )) at [[Langara College]]

((History of theatre))
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((DEFAULTSORT:History Of Theatre))
[[Category:History of theatre| ]]
[[Category:History of literature|Theatre]]
[[Category:Performing arts]]
[[Category:Art history by medium|Theatre]]
[[Category:History by topic]]
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