This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

"I before E, except after C" is a mnemonic rule of thumb for English spelling. If one is unsure whether a word is spelled with the digraph ⟨ei⟩ or ⟨ie⟩, the rhyme suggests that the correct order is ⟨ie⟩ unless the preceding letter is ⟨c⟩, in which case it may be ⟨ei⟩.

The rhyme is very well known; Edward Carney calls it "this supreme, and for many people solitary, spelling rule".[1] However, the short form quoted above has many common exceptions; for example:

The proportion of exceptions can be reduced by restricting application of the rule based on the sound represented by the spelling. Two common restrictions are:

Variant pronunciations of some words (such as heinous and neither) complicate application of sound-based restrictions, which do not eliminate all exceptions. Many authorities deprecate the rule as having too many exceptions to be worth learning.[2][3][4][5]

History of the spellings

The Middle English language evolved from Old English after the Norman conquest, adding many loanwords from Norman French, whose sounds and spellings changed and were changed by the older English customs. In French loanwords, the digraph ⟨ie⟩ generally represented the sound [eː], while ⟨ei⟩ represented [ɛː]; ⟨ie⟩ was later extended to signify [eː] in non-French words. In the Great Vowel Shift, sounds [eː] and [ɛː] were raised to [iː] and [eː] respectively. Later, the meet–meat merger saw the vowel in many [eː] words change to [iː], so that meat became a homonym of meet, while conceive now rhymed with believe.[6][7] Early Modern English spelling was not fixed; many words were spelled with ⟨ie⟩ and ⟨ei⟩ interchangeably, in printed works of the seventeenth century and private correspondence of educated people into the nineteenth century.

History of the mnemonic

The mnemonic (in its short form) is found as early as 1866, as a footnote in Manual of English Spelling,[8] edited by schools inspector James Stuart Laurie from the work of a Tavistock schoolmaster named Marshall.[9] Michael Quinion surmises the rhyme was already established before this date.[10] An 1834 manual states a similar rule in prose;[11] others in 1855 and 1862 use different rhymes.[12][13] Many textbooks from the 1870s on use the same rhyme as Laurie's book.[10]

The restriction to the "long e" sound is explicitly made in the 1855 and 1862 books, and applied to the "I before E except after C" rhyme in an 1871 manual.[14] Mark Wainwright's FAQ posting on the alt.usage.English newsgroup characterises this restricted version as British.[15] The restriction may be implicit, or may be explicitly included as an extra line such as "when the sound is e" placed before[15] or after[16] the main part of the rhyme.

A longer form excluding the "long a" sound is found in Rule 37 of Ebenezer Cobham Brewer's 1880 Rules for English Spelling, along with a list of the "chief exceptions":[17]

The following rhymes contain the substance of the last three rules : —
i before e,
Except after c,
Or when sounded as "a",
As in neighbor and weigh
But seizure and seize do what they please.
"Dr Brewer" is credited as the author by subsequent writers quoting this form of the rhyme,[18][19][20] which became common in American schools.[10]

A Dictionary of Modern English Usage discusses "i before e except after c". Henry Watson Fowler's original 1926 edition called the rule "very useful", restricting it to words with the "long e" sound, stating further that "words in which that sound is not invariable, as either, neither, inveigle, do not come under it", and calling seize "an important exception".[21] The entry was retained in Ernest Gowers's 1965 revision.[22] Robert Burchfield rewrote it for the 1996 edition, stating 'the rule can helpfully be extended "except when the word is pronounced with /eɪ/"', and giving a longer list of exceptions, including words excluded from Fowler's interpretation.[23] Robert Allen's 2008 pocket edition states, "The traditional spelling rule ' i before e except after c ' should be extended to include the statement 'when the combination is pronounced -ee- '".[24] Jeremy Butterfield's 2015 edition suggests both "when ... pronounced -ee-" and "except when ... pronounced -ay-" as extensions to the rhyme, as well as listing various classes of exception.[25]

In 1932 Leonard B. Wheat examined the rules and word lists found in various American elementary school spelling books. He calculated that, of the 3,876 words listed, 128 had ei or ie in the spelling; of these, 83 conformed to I-before-E, 6 to except-after-C, and 12 to sounded-like-A. He found 14 words with i-e in separate syllables, and 2 with e-i in separate syllables. This left 11 "irregular" words: 3 with cie (ancient, conscience, efficiency) and 8 with ei (either, foreign, foreigner, height, leisure, neither, seize, their). Wheat concluded, "If it were not for the fact that the jingle of the rule makes it easy to remember (although not necessarily easy to apply), the writer would recommend that the rule be reduced to 'I usually comes before e,' or that it be discarded entirely".[2]


Modern views

Sandra Wilde in 1990 claimed the sounded-like-E version of the rule was one of only two sound–letter correspondence rules worth teaching in elementary schools.[27] The rule was covered by five of nine software programs for spelling education studied by Barbara Mullock in 2012.[26]

Edward Carney's 1994 Survey of English Spelling describes the ["long-e" version of the] rule as "peculiar":[1]

Its practical use is ... simply deciding between two correspondences for /iː/ that are a visual metathesis of each other. It is not a general graphotactic rule applicable to other phonemes. So, although seize and heinous (if you pronounce it with /iː/ rather than /eɪ/) are exceptions, heifer, leisure with /e/≡⟨ei⟩ or rein, vein with /eɪ/≡⟨ei⟩ are not exceptions; ⟨ie⟩ is not a usual spelling of /e/ or /eɪ/.

As to the usefulness of the rule, he says:[28]

Such rules are warnings against common pitfalls for the unwary. Nevertheless, selection among competing correspondences has never been, and could never be, covered by such aids to memory.

The converse of the "except after c" part is Carney's spelling-to-sound rule E.16: in the sequence ⟨cei⟩, the ⟨ei⟩ is pronounced /iː/.[29] In Carney's test wordlist, all eight words with ⟨cei⟩ conform to this rule, which he thus describes as being a "marginal" rule with an "efficiency" of 100%.[29] Rarer words not in the wordlist may not conform; for example, in haecceity, ceilidh, and enceinte the ei represents /iː.ɪ/, /eɪ/, and /æ/ respectively.[30]

Mark Wainwright's FAQ posting interprets the rule as applying only to the FLEECE vowel, not the NEAR vowel; he regards it as useful if "a little common sense" is used for the exceptions.[15] The FAQ includes a 1996 response to Wainwright by an American, listing variations on the rule and their exceptions, contending that even the restricted version has too many exceptions, and concluding "Instead of trying to defend the 'rule' or 'guideline', "'i' before 'e' except after 'c'", why don't we all just agree that it is dumb and useless, and be content just to laugh at it?"[31]

Kory Stamper of Merriam-Webster has said the neighbor-and-weigh version is "chocked with tons of exceptions", listing several types.[3] On Language Log in 2006, Mark Liberman suggested that the alternative "i before e, no matter what" was more reliable than the basic rule.[4] On the same blog in 2009, Geoff Pullum wrote, 'The rule is always taught, by anyone who knows what they are doing, as "i before e except after c when the sound is 'ee'."'[16]

Teaching English Spelling (Cambridge University Press, 2000) provides a system of sound–spelling correspondences aimed at correcting common spelling errors among native and ESL students. The chapter "The sound 'e' (/iː/)" has sections on spellings "ee", "ea", "-y" and "ie and ei", the last of which uses "I before E except after C" and lists five "common exceptions" (caffeine, codeine, protein, seize, weird).[32]

The 2009 edition of Support for Spelling, by the English Department for Education,[5] suggests an "Extension activity" for Year Five (10-year-olds):

In the Appendix, after a list of nine "useful spelling guidelines", there is a note:

There were widespread media reports of this recommendation, which generated some controversy.[10][16]

The Oxford Dictionaries website of Oxford University Press states "The rule only applies when the sound represented is ‘ee’, though. It doesn't apply to words like science or efficient, in which the –ie- combination does follow the letter c but isn't pronounced ‘ee’."[33]

David Crystal discusses the rule in his 2012 history of English spelling.[34] He first restricts it to the /iː/ vowel, then accounts for several classes of exception. He states that, while the exceptions are fewer and rarer than the words that follow the rule, there are too many to learn by heart; the factors are "too great to reduce to a simple rule", but "a basic knowledge of grammar and word-history" can handle them.[34]

Educationalist Greg Brooks says the long-e qualification "is hardly ever mentioned, perhaps because it is difficult to explain to children"; the except-after-C part "works very poorly"; and the mnemonic "should be consigned to oblivion".[35]

Exceptions

The following sections list exceptions to the basic form; many are not exceptions to the augmented forms.

Words that break both the "I before E" part and the "except after C" part of the rule include cheiromancies, cleidomancies, eigenfrequencies, obeisancies and oneiromancies, as well as Pleistocene from the geologic time scale.

cie

Some large groups of words have cie in the spelling. Few common words have the cei spelling handled by the rule: verbs ending -ceive and their derivatives (perceive, deceit, transceiver, receipts, etc.), and ceiling. The BBC trivia show QI claimed there were 923 words spelled cie, 21 times the number of words that conform to the rule's stated exception by being written with cei.[36] These figures were generated by a QI fan from a Scrabble wordlist.[37] The statistic was repeated by UberFacts.[38]

With the "long e" vowel

The vowel represented by ie in words spelled cie is rarely the "long e" vowel of FLEECE (/iː/), so few words are exceptions to the version of the rule restricted to that sound. Among them are specie, species.

For those with happy-tensing accents, the final y in words ending -cy has the FLEECE vowel, and therefore so do inflected forms ending -cies or -cied (fancied, policies, etc.).

If the vowel of NEAR (/ɪər/) is considered as "long e", then words ending -cier may also be exceptions. Possible examples include: fancier, if pronounced with two rather than three syllables; or financier, if stressed on the final syllable or pronounced with a happy-tensing accent.

With other sounds

These are exceptions to the basic and "long a" versions of the rhyme, but not to the "long e" version.

Types include:

ei not preceded by c

Many words have ei not preceded by c. In the sections that follow, most derived forms are omitted; for example, as well as seize, there exist disseize and seizure. Words are grouped by the phonemes (sounds) corresponding to ei or ie in the spelling; each phoneme is represented phonetically as at Help:IPA/English and, where applicable, by the keyword in John C. Wells' lexical sets.

An asterisk* after a word indicates the pronunciation implied is one of several found. Some have an /iː/ variant more common in America than Britain (e.g. sheikh, leisure, either have /eɪ/, /ɛ/, /aɪ/ respectively).

With the "long e" vowel

Words where ei, not preceded by c, represents the vowel of FLEECE (/iː/), are the only exceptions to the strictest British interpretation of the "long e" version of the rhyme. Less strict interpretations admit as exceptions those words where eir, not preceded by c, represents the vowel of NEAR (/ɪər/).

Some categories of exception:

Other exceptions:

/iː/ FLEECE
either*, heinous*, inveigle*, keister, leisure*, monteith, neither*, obeisance*, seize, seizin, sheikh*, teiid
/ɪər/ NEAR
madeira, weir, weird. (This sound may also be spelled ier, as in pierce.)

With the "long a" vowel

There are many words where ei, not preceded by c, represents the vowel of FACE (/eɪ/). There are a few where eir, not preceded by c, represents the vowel of SQUARE (/ɛər/). These groups of words are exceptions only to the basic form of the rhyme; they are excluded from both of the common restricted forms.

/eɪ/ FACE
/ɛər/ SQUARE
heir, their. (This sound is never spelled ier)

With other sounds

These are exceptions to the basic and "long a" versions of the rhyme, but not to the "long e" version.

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.
/aɪ/ PRICE
(This sound may also be spelled ie, but only at the end of a morpheme as in die, pies, cried.[42])
/ɪ/ or /ə/ (see weak-vowel merger)
counterfeit, cuneiform*, foreign, forfeit, reveille*, sovereign, surfeit
/ɛ/ DRESS
heifer, leisure*, nonpareil*, peignoir*. (This sound is spelled ie in the word friend.)
/æ/ TRAP
reveille*
/ɜ/ NURSE
O'Beirne
e and i in separate segments (and often separate syllables or morphemes)

Popular culture

The rhyme is mentioned in several films and TV episodes about spelling bees, including A Boy Named Charlie Brown, The Simpsons episode "I'm Spelling as Fast as I Can", The Pen Is Mightier Than the Pencil episode of The Odd Couple, and an episode of Arthur; and also in the musical The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, when Huckleberry Finn is being taught how to read. The rhyme was used as a climactic plot device in the 1990 TaleSpin episode "Vowel Play" when Kit corrects Baloo's spelling by reciting the second half ("or when sounding like A, as in neighbour or weigh") of the mnemonic.

I Before E (Except After C): Old-School Ways To Remember Stuff was a miscellany released in the UK for the Christmas 2007 "stocking filler" market,[43] which sold well.[44]

"I Before E Except After C" is a song on Yazoo's 1982 album Upstairs at Eric's. The Jackson 5's 1970 hit "ABC" has the lyric "I before E except after C". "I before E except after C" was a 1963 episode of the TV series East Side/West Side.

I Before E is the name of both a short-story collection by Sam Kieth and a music album by Carissa's Wierd, in each case alluding to the unusual spelling of the creator's name.

Until the 1930s, Pierce City, Missouri was named "Peirce City", after Andrew Peirce. A 1982 attempt to revert to the original spelling was rejected by the United States Census Bureau.[45]

Comedian Brian Regan employs the rule in a joke on his debut CD Live in the track Stupid in School, where he states it as "I before E, except after C, or when sounding like A, as in neighbor or weigh, and on weekends and holidays and all throughout May, and you'll never be right, no matter what you say!" [46]

Footnote

  1. ^ a b The labels "long a" and "long e", discredited among educators, are used here as umbrella terms for multiple lexical sets and diaphonemes.

References

Sources

Citations

  1. ^ a b Carney 1994, §2.8.2 pp.67–68
  2. ^ a b Wheat, Leonard B. (May 1932). "Four Spelling Rules". The Elementary School Journal. University of Chicago Press. 32 (9): 697–706. doi:10.1086/456796. JSTOR 996052. S2CID 144229809.
  3. ^ a b Stamper, Kory. "I before E" (Adobe Flash). Ask the Editor. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
  4. ^ a b Liberman, Mark (18 November 2006). "Mrs. Olsen gets a D". Language Log. University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
  5. ^ a b "Support for Spelling" (PDF). The National Strategies: Primary Framework: Literacy Framework. Department for Education. February 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 February 2011. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
  6. ^ Scragg, D. G. (1974). A History of English Spelling. Manchester University Press. pp. 49 (text and fn.1). ISBN 9780719005534. Retrieved 24 March 2016.
  7. ^ Upward and Davidson 2011, pp.127–8
  8. ^ Laurie, James Stuart (1866). Manual of English spelling. London: Simpkin, Marshall & Co. p. 59. OCLC 266992241. Retrieved 4 April 2013. Laurie's book erroneously lists conscience, seine, seize, and seizure under "ei" rather than under "exceptions".
  9. ^ "Laurie's Manual of English Spelling". The Bookseller. J. Whitaker (109): 15. 31 January 1867. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
  10. ^ a b c d Quinion, Michael (4 July 2009). "I before E except after C". World Wide Words. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
  11. ^ Tallant, Anne (1834). The practice book; containing lessons in dictating, with questions, intended to remove difficulties in English instruction, and to communicate interesting historical and natural facts (2nd ed.). London: J. Hatchard & Son. p. 68, fn. Retrieved 27 February 2011. As a little confusion is experienced by scholars, when spelling dissyllable verbs ending in ie, it is well to remember that when the diphthong is preceded by c, it is invariably ei,—ex: perceive, deceive, conceive, &c, and when preceded by any other consonant, ie, ex:—believe, reprieve, retrieve, &c.
  12. ^ Michôd, John (1855). "Vowels: Rule 5". Orthographic aids; or, Mnemonics for spelling and exercises in derivation. London: Longman. p. 9. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
    The Diphthong ei when it sounds like long e,
    Most frequently follows the consonant c;
    Reverse it, and then if it still sound the same,
    It follows a consonant not c by name,
    Except in such words as—counterfeit, seizure,
    Plebeian and Proper Names such as Madeira.
  13. ^ Mongan, James Roscoe (1862). The practical spelling book (2nd ed.). London: Simpkin, Marshall & Co. pp. 13, fn. Retrieved 27 February 2011. Unless preceded by a c, / The i is placed before the e.
  14. ^ Colquhoun, John Stuart (1871). "Rules for Spelling English Words". A compendious grammar and philological hand-book of the English language. Griffith & Farran. p. 15. Retrieved 27 November 2014.
  15. ^ a b c d Wainwright, Mark (September 1997). "I before E except after C". alt.english.usage. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
  16. ^ a b c Pullum, Geoff (22 June 2009). "I before E". Language Log. University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
  17. ^ Brewer, Ebenezer Cobham (1880). Rules for English spelling. p. 48. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
  18. ^ Reed, Alonzo (1884). Word lessons: A complete speller adapted for use in the higher primary, intermediate, and grammar grades. Clark & Maynard. pp. 101–102: §§143–146. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
  19. ^ California State Board of Education (1886). Speller. State Printing Office. p. 127. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
  20. ^ Gillingham, Anna; Stillman, Bessie Whitmore (1970). Remedial training for children with specific disability in reading, spelling, and penmanship. Educators Publishing Service. p. 173. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
  21. ^ a b Fowler, Henry Watson (1926). "Spelling points; §4: Miscellaneous". A Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1st ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 556. OCLC 318492.
  22. ^ Fowler, Henry Watson (1965). "Spelling points; §4: Miscellaneous". Fowler's Modern English Usage. Edited by Sir Ernest Gowers (2nd ed.). Great Britain: Oxford University Press. pp. 577–578. OCLC 318483.
  23. ^ Burchfield, Robert William (1996). "i before e except after c". The New Fowler's Modern English Usage (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-869126-2. OCLC 36063311.
  24. ^ Allen, Robert (2008-06-26). "i before e". Pocket Fowler's Modern English Usage. OUP Oxford. p. 348. ISBN 9780199232581. Retrieved 24 March 2016.
  25. ^ Butterfield, Jeremy (March 2015). Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 390–391. ISBN 978-0-19-966135-0.
  26. ^ a b Mullock, Barbara (2012). "An Examination of Commercial Spelling Programs for Upper Primary Level students". Australasian Journal of Special Education. 36 (2): 172–195. doi:10.1017/jse.2012.14. ISSN 1030-0112.
  27. ^ Wilde, Sandra (1990). "Spelling textbooks: A critical review". Linguistics and Education. 2 (3): 259–280. doi:10.1016/S0898-5898(05)80022-1. ISSN 0898-5898.cited in Mullock.[26]
  28. ^ Carney 1994, p.74
  29. ^ a b Carney 1994, p.314
  30. ^ See Collins English Dictionary and Webster's New World College Dictionary (4th ed.) pronunciations for haecceity, ceilidh, enceinte
  31. ^ Cunningham, Bob (23 February 2002). "Exceptions to the rule 'I before E except after C'". FAQ. alt.usage.english. Archived from the original on 23 December 2010. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
  32. ^ Shemesh, Ruth; Waller, Sheila (2000). Teaching English Spelling: A Practical Guide. Cambridge University Press. pp. 228–234. ISBN 9780521639712.
  33. ^ "i before e except after c". Oxford Dictionaries Online. Oxford University Press. 2010. Archived from the original on January 31, 2013. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
  34. ^ a b Crystal, David (2012-09-06). "Ch.24: Spelling 'rules'". Spell It Out: The singular story of English spelling. Profile Books. pp. 177–186. ISBN 978-1846685682. Retrieved 31 May 2014.
  35. ^ Brooks, Greg (July 2017) [2015]. "6.1 '<i> before <e> except after <c>'". Dictionary of the British English Spelling System. Open Book. ISBN 978-2-8218-7627-9. Retrieved 16 October 2020.
  36. ^ "I Before E Except After C". QI Series 8 Ep 14 Hocus Pocus Preview. YouTube. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
  37. ^ "Series H, Episode 14: Hocus Pocus". QI Talk Forum. 21 December 2010. Archived from the original on 15 July 2011. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
  38. ^ UberFacts (6 July 2014). "Tweet 485804692292009985". Twitter. Retrieved 9 November 2016. There are 923 words in the English language that break the "I before E" rule. Only 44 words actually follow that rule.
  39. ^ Carney 1994, §3.3.2.2 p.161
  40. ^ "Definition of capoeira". Collins English Dictionary. Collins. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
  41. ^ Carney 1994, p.168
  42. ^ Carney 1994, §3.3.2.1 pp.151–2
  43. ^ "Mnemony clever ways to remember stuff". The Daily Telegraph. 12 December 2007. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
  44. ^ "BA book prize lists 20". The Bookseller. 26 August 2008. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
  45. ^ United Press International (1 September 1982). "Bureau sticks with 'i' before 'e'". The Bulletin. Bend, Oregon. p. 15. Retrieved 28 February 2011.
  46. ^ Wikiquote:Brian Regan
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