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((Contains special characters|PIE))
((Multiple issues|
((confusing|date=October 2023))
((More citations needed|date=October 2023)))) 
As the [[Proto-Indo-European language]] (PIE)  broke up, [[Proto-Indo-European phonology|its sound system]] diverged as well, as evidenced in various [[sound change|sound law]]s associated with the [[daughter language|daughter]] [[Indo-European languages]].
((short description|Linguistic aspect of the Proto-Indo-European languages))
Especially notable is the palatalization that produced the [[satem language]]s, along with the associated [[ruki sound law]].  Other notable changes include:

* [[Grimm's law]] and [[Verner's law]] in [[Proto-Germanic]]
* an independent change similar to Grimm's law in [[Armenian language|Armenian]]
* loss of prevocalic ''*p-'' in [[Proto-Celtic]]
* [[Brugmann's law]] in [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]]
* [[Winter's law]] and [[Hirt's law]] in [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
* merging of voiced and breathy-voiced stops, and /a/ and /o/, in various "northern" languages

[[Bartholomae's law]] in Indo-Iranian, and [[Sievers's law]] in [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] and (to some extent) various other branches, may or may not have been common Indo-European features. A number of innovations, both [[phonology|phonological]] and [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]], represent [[areal feature]]s common to the [[Italic languages|Italic]] and [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] languages; among them the development of [[labialized velar consonant|labiovelar]]s to [[labial consonants]] in some Italic and Celtic branches, producing "[[p-Celtic]]" and "[[q-Celtic]]" languages (likewise "p-Italic" and "q-Italic", although these terms are less used).  Another grouping with many shared [[areal feature|areal]] innovations comprises Greek, Indo-Iranian, and Armenian; among its common phonological innovations are [[Grassmann's law]] in Greek and Indo-Iranian, and weakening of pre-vocalic /s/ to /h/ in Greek, Iranian and Armenian.

==Consonants==
The following table shows the Proto-Indo-European consonants  and their [[Reflex (linguistics)|reflexes]] in selected Indo-European daughter languages. Background and further details can be found in various related articles, including [[Proto-Indo-European phonology]], [[Centum and satem languages]], the articles on the various sound laws referred to in the introduction, and the articles on the various IE proto-languages, language groups and language phonologies. For development of the [[laryngeal theory|laryngeals]] and syllabic consonants, see the [[#Vowels and syllabic consonants|vowels]] table below.

{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
|+ Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
|-
! rowspan="3"| PIE
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! colspan="2"| [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
! colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
|- align=center
| <small>normal</small>
| <small>C+[j] <ref group=C name=consonants>A capital ''C'' stands for ''consonant'' in this table</ref></small>
| <small>normal</small>
| <small>-C- <ref group=C name=VXV>Between vowels</ref> <ref group=C name=consonants/></small>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*p))
|((PIE|p)); ((PIE|ph)) ((IPA|[pʰ])) <ref group=C name=P+H>Before an original h₂.</ref>
|((PIE|p)); ((PIE|f)) <ref group=C name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
| colspan="3"|((PIE|p))
|((PIE|h));<br />((PIE|w)) <ref group=C name=VCV>After a vowel.</ref>
|((PIE|p)), pp
| colspan="2" |p
|((PIE|pt))
|((PIE|p))
|colspan="2"|((PIE|∅))
|((PIE|f));<br />((PIE|b)) ((IPA|[β])) <ref group="C" name="Verner">Following an unstressed vowel ([[Verner's law]]).</ref>
|((PIE|f));<br />((PIE|v, f))<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*t))
|((PIE|t)); ((PIE|th)) ((IPA|[t̪ʰ])) <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|((PIE|t)); ((PIE|θ))<ref group=C name=CH/>
| colspan="3"|((PIE|t))
|((PIE|tʿ)) ((IPA|[tʰ]))
|((PIE|t)), tt;<br />((PIE|z)) ((IPA|[ts])) <ref group=C name=Cie>Before a (PIE) front vowel (((PIE|*i, *e))).</ref>
|((PIE|t));<br />((PIE|c)) ((IPA|[c])) <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|((PIE|t))
|rowspan="4"|((PIE|s)); ((PIE|tt))/((PIE|ss))<ref group=C name=VCV/>
|((PIE|t))
|((PIE|t))|| ((PIE|th)) ((IPA|[θ]))
|((PIE|þ)) ((IPA|[θ]));<br />((PIE|d)) ((IPA|[ð])); <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|((PIE|th));<br />((PIE|d)); <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ḱ))
|((PIE|ś)) ((IPA|[ɕ]))
| colspan="2"|((PIE|s))
|((PIE|š)) ((IPA|[ʃ]))
|((PIE|th)) ((IPA|[θ]));<br />((PIE|k))<ref group=C name=XSon>Before a [[sonorant]].</ref>
|((PIE|s))
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|k)), kk
| rowspan="3"|((PIE|k));<br />((PIE|ś)) ((IPA|[ɕ]))<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|k))
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|c)) ((IPA|[k]))
| rowspan="3"|((PIE|c)) ((IPA|[k])) || rowspan="3"| ((PIE|ch)) ((IPA|[x]))
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|h));<br />((PIE|g)) ((IPA|[ɣ])) <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|h));<br />((PIE|∅));<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />((PIE|y)) <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
|- align=center
!((PIE|*k))
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|k)); ((PIE|c)) ((IPA|[t͡ɕ])); <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />((PIE|kh)) ((IPA|[kʰ])) <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|k)); ((PIE|c)) ((IPA|[tʃ])); <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />((PIE|x))<ref group=C name=CH/>
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|k));<br />((PIE|č)) ((IPA|[tʃ])); <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />((PIE|c)) ((IPA|[ts]))<ref group=C name=Xie>Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.</ref>
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|k))
|((PIE|k));<br />((PIE|q)) ((IPA|[c]))<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|kʿ)) ((IPA|[kʰ]))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*kʷ))
|((PIE|k));<br />((PIE|s)); <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />((PIE|q)) ((IPA|[c]))<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|((PIE|ku)), kku
|((PIE|p));<br />((PIE|t)); <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />((PIE|k))<ref group=C name=Xu>Before or after a (PIE) ((PIE|u))</ref>
|((PIE|qu)) ((IPA|[kʷ]));<br />((PIE|c)) ((IPA|[k])) <ref group=C>Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (((PIE|*u)), ((PIE|*o))).</ref>
|((PIE|ƕ)) ((IPA|[ʍ]));<br />((PIE|gw, w)) <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
|((PIE|wh));<br />((PIE|w)) <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*b))
|((PIE|b)); ((PIE|bh)) <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|((PIE|b)); ((PIE|β)) <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| colspan="3"|((PIE|b))
| colspan="3"|((PIE|p))
| ((PIE|b))
| ((PIE|pt))
| ((PIE|b))
|((PIE|b)) ((IPA|[b])) || -((IPA|[β]))-
| colspan="2"|((PIE|p))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*d))
|((PIE|d)); ((PIE|dh)) <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|((PIE|d)); ((PIE|δ)) <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| colspan="2"|((PIE|d))
|((PIE|d));<br />((PIE|dh)) ((IPA|[ð]))<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| colspan="2"|((PIE|t))
|((PIE|ts));<br />((PIE|ś)) ((IPA|[ɕ])) <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|((PIE|d))
|rowspan="4"|((PIE|z)) ((IPA|[zd])) > ((IPA|[z]))
|((PIE|d))
|((PIE|d)) ((IPA|[d])) || -((IPA|[ð]))-
| colspan="2"|((PIE|t))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ǵ))
|((PIE|j)) ((IPA|[d͡ʑ]));<br />((PIE|h)) ((IPA|[ɦ])) <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| colspan="2"|((PIE|z))
|((PIE|ž)) ((IPA|[ʒ]))
|((PIE|dh)) ((IPA|[ð]));<br />((PIE|g))<ref group=C name=XSon/>
|((PIE|c)) ((IPA|[ts]))
| rowspan="2"|k
| rowspan="3"|((PIE|k));<br />((PIE|ś)) ((IPA|[ɕ]))<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|g))
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|g))
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|g)) ((IPA|[ɡ])) || rowspan="2"| -((IPA|[ɣ]))-
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|k))
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|c / k));<br />((PIE|ch))<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*g))
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|g)); ((PIE|j)) ((IPA|[d͡ʑ])); <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />((PIE|gh)); <ref group=C name=P+H/> ((PIE|h)) ((IPA|[ɦ])) <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|g)); ((PIE|j)) ((IPA|[dʒ])); <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />((PIE|γ)) <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|g));<br />((PIE|ž)) ((IPA|[ʒ])); <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />((PIE|dz))<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|g))
|((PIE|g))
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|k))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*gʷ))
|((PIE|g));<br />((PIE|z)); <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />((PIE|gj)) ((IPA|[ɟ]))<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|ku
|((PIE|b));<br />((PIE|d)); <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />((PIE|g))<ref group=C name=Xu/>
|((PIE|u)) ((IPA|[w > v]));<br />((PIE|gu)) ((IPA|[ɡʷ])) <ref group=C name=ngw>After ((PIE|n)).</ref>
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|b)) ((IPA|[b])) ||rowspan="2"| -((IPA|[β]))-
|((PIE|q)) ((IPA|[kʷ]))
|((PIE|qu))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*bʰ))
|((PIE|bh)) ((IPA|[bʱ]))
|((PIE|b)); ((PIE|β)) <ref group=C name=YAv>In [[Avestan#Forms and stages of development|Younger Avestan]], after a vowel.</ref>
| colspan="3"|((PIE|b))
|((PIE|b));<br />((PIE|w))<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| colspan="2"|p
|((PIE|ph)) ((IPA|[pʰ]))
|((PIE|pt))
|((PIE|f));<ref group=C name=#X>At the beginning of a word</ref><br />((PIE|b))
|((PIE|b)) ((IPA|[b]));<br />((PIE|b)) ((IPA|[β]));<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />((PIE|f)) <ref group=C name=final/>
|((PIE|b));<br />((PIE|v / f))<ref group=C name=VXVR>Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)</ref>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*dʰ))
|((PIE|dh)) ((IPA|[dʱ]))
|((PIE|d)); ((PIE|δ)) <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| colspan="4"|((PIE|d))
|t
|((PIE|t));<br />((PIE|c)) ((IPA|[c])) <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|((PIE|th)) ((IPA|[tʰ]))
| rowspan="4"|((PIE|tt))/((PIE|ss))
|((PIE|f));<ref group=C name=#X/><br />((PIE|d));<br />((PIE|b)) <ref group=C>After ((PIE|u, r)) or before ((PIE|r, l)).</ref>
|((PIE|d)) ((IPA|[d])) || -((IPA|[ð]))-
|((PIE|d));<br />((PIE|d)) ((IPA|[ð]));<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />((PIE|þ)) <ref group=C name=final/>
|((PIE|d))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ǵʰ))
|((PIE|h)) ((IPA|[ɦ]))
| colspan="2"|((PIE|z))
|((PIE|ž)) ((IPA|[ʒ]))
|((PIE|dh)) ((IPA|[ð]));<br />((PIE|d))<ref group=C name=XSon/>
|((PIE|j)) ((IPA|[dz]));<br />((PIE|z))<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|k
| rowspan="3"|((PIE|k));<br />((PIE|ś)) ((IPA|[ɕ])) <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|kh)) ((IPA|[kʰ]))
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|h));<br />((PIE|h)) / ((PIE|g))<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| rowspan="3"|((PIE|g)) ((IPA|[ɡ])) || rowspan="3"| -((IPA|[ɣ]))-
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|g));<br />((PIE|g)) ((IPA|[ɣ]));<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />((PIE|g)) ((IPA|[x])) <ref group=C name=final/>
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|g));<br />((PIE|y / w))<ref group=C name=VXVR/>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*gʰ))
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|gh)) ((IPA|[ɡʱ]));<br />((PIE|h)) ((IPA|[ɦ])) <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|g)); ((PIE|j)) ((IPA|[dʒ])); <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />((PIE|γ)) <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|g));<br />((PIE|ž)) ((IPA|[ʒ])); <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />((PIE|dz))<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|g))
|((PIE|g))
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|g));<br />((PIE|ǰ)) ((IPA|[dʒ])) <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*gʷʰ))
|((PIE|g));<br />((PIE|z)); <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />((PIE|gj)) ((IPA|[ɟ]))<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|ku
|((PIE|ph)) ((IPA|[pʰ]));<br />((PIE|th)) ((IPA|[tʰ])); <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />((PIE|kh)) ((IPA|[kʰ]))<ref group=C name=Xu/>
|((PIE|f));<ref group=C name=#X/><br />((PIE|g)) /<br />((PIE|u)) ((IPA|[w]));<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />((PIE|gu)) ((IPA|[ɡʷ])) <ref group=C name=ngw/>
|((PIE|g));<br />((PIE|b));<ref group=C name=#X/><br />((PIE|w));<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />((PIE|gw)) <ref group=C name=ngw/>
|((PIE|g));<br />((PIE|b));<ref group=C name=#X/><br />((PIE|w))<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"|((PIE|*s))
|((PIE|s))
|((PIE|h)) ((IPA|[h, x]))
| colspan="2"|((PIE|s))
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|sh)) ((IPA|[ʃ]));<br />((PIE|gj)) ((IPA|[ɟ]));<ref group=C name=X’V>Before a stressed vowel</ref><br />((PIE|h))<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|h));<br />((PIE|∅))<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|š)) ((IPA|[s]))
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|s));<br />((PIE|ṣ)) ((IPA|[ʂ]))
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|h));<ref group=C name=#X/><br />((PIE|s));<ref group=C name=PCP>Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)</ref><ref group=C name=final/>/<br />((PIE|∅));<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />((IPA|[¯])) <ref group=C>Before or after a resonant (((PIE|r, l, m, n))).</ref><!-- Perhaps better treated under PIE clusters *sm, *ms etc.? -->
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|i))
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|s));<br />((PIE|r))<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|s)) ((IPA|ʃ))|| rowspan="2"| -((IPA|[h]))-
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|s));<br />((PIE|z)) <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| rowspan="2"|((PIE|s));<br />((PIE|r)) <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|- align=center
|((PIE|ṣ)) ((IPA|[ʂ]))<ref group=C name=Ruki>After ((PIE|r, u, k, i)) ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref>
|((PIE|š)) ((IPA|[ʃ]))<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
|((PIE|x)) ((IPA|[x]))<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
|((PIE|š)) ((IPA|[ʃ]))<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
|- align=center
! ((PIE|*m))
| colspan="9"|((PIE|m))
| ((PIE|in))
| ((PIE|m))
| ((PIE|m)) ((IPA|[m])) || -((IPA|[w̃]))-
| colspan="2"|((PIE|m))
|- align=center
! ((PIE|*-m)) <ref group=C name=final>At the end of a word.</ref>
| colspan="2"|((PIE|m))
|((PIE|˛)) ((IPA|[˜]))
| colspan="2"|((PIE|n))
|((PIE|∅))
|n
| colspan="2"|((PIE|n))
| --
|((PIE|m)) [˜]
| colspan="2"|((PIE|n))
| colspan="2"|((PIE|∅))
|- align=center
! ((PIE|*n))
| colspan="2"|((PIE|n))
|((PIE|n));<br />((PIE|˛)) ((IPA|[˜])) <ref group=C name=final/>
| colspan="4"|((PIE|n))
|((PIE|n));<br />((PIE|ñ)) ((IPA|[ɲ]))
|((PIE|n))
|((PIE|in))
| colspan="5"|((PIE|n))
|- align=center
! ((PIE|*l))
|((PIE|r)) (dial. ((PIE|l)))
|((PIE|r))
| colspan="2"|((PIE|l))
|((PIE|l));<br />((PIE|ll)) ((IPA|[ɫ]))<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|((PIE|l)) /<br />((PIE|ɫ)) ((IPA|[ɫ<br /> > ɣ]))
| colspan="3"|((PIE|l))
| ((PIE|il))
| colspan="5"|((PIE|l))
|- align=center
! ((PIE|*r))
|((PIE|r))/((PIE|l))<ref group=C name=rare>rare</ref>
| colspan="3"|((PIE|r))
|((PIE|r)) ((IPA|[ɾ]));<br />((PIE|rr)) ((IPA|[r]))<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| colspan="4"|((PIE|r))
| ((PIE|ir))
| colspan="5"|((PIE|r))
|- align=center
! ((PIE|*y))
| colspan="2"|((PIE|y)) ((IPA|[j]))
| colspan="2"|((PIE|j)) ((IPA|[j]))
|((PIE|gj)) ((IPA|[ɟ]));<br />((PIE|∅))
|((PIE|∅))
| colspan="2"|((PIE|y)) ((IPA|[j]))
|((PIE|z))  ((IPA|[zd])) > ((IPA|[z])) /<br />((PIE|h));<br />((PIE|∅))  <ref group=C name=VXV/>
|?((PIE|i))
|((PIE|i)) ((IPA|[j]));<br />((PIE|∅))  <ref group=C name=VXV/>
|colspan="2"|((PIE|∅))
|((PIE|j))
|((PIE|y))
|- align=center
! ((PIE|*w))
|((PIE|v)) ((IPA|[ʋ]))
|((PIE|v)) ((IPA|[w]))
|((PIE|v))
|((PIE|v)) ((IPA|[ʋ]))
|((PIE|v))
|((PIE|g)) / ((PIE|w))
| colspan="2"|((PIE|w))
|((PIE|w > h / ∅))
|((PIE|i))
|((PIE|u)) ((IPA|[w > v]))
|((PIE|f)) || -((PIE|∅))-
| colspan="2"|((PIE|w))
|-
! PIE !! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !!colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
|}

Notes for table 1:
((reflist|group=C))

===Consonant clusters===

Proto-Indo-European also had numerous [[consonant cluster]]s, such as ((PIE|*st)), ((PIE|*ḱs)). In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):

((expand section|with=thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law|date=August 2016))

{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
|+ Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
|-
! rowspan="3"| PIE
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan|Av.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
|- align=center
| <small>normal</small>
| <small>C+[j]</small><!--
|- align=center
!((PIE|*))
| style="color:gray"|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-->
|- align=center
!((PIE|*sr))
| style="color:gray"| sr
| r
| str
| style="color:gray"| sr
| rr ((IPA|[r]))
| (a)r
| š(ša)r ((IPA|ʃʃr))
| 
| style="color:gray"| rh
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| fr-, -br-
| style="color:gray"| sr
| str
| str
|- align=center
!((PIE|*tw))
| style="color:gray"| tv
| θβ
| style="color:gray"| tv
| style="color:gray"| tv
| t
| kʿ ((IPA|[kʰ]))
| ttu, ddu
|
| s-, -ss-
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| p?
| t
| style="color:gray"| þw
| style="color:gray"| thw
|- align=center
!((PIE|*dʰw))
| style="color:gray"| dhv
| rowspan="2"| ðβ
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
| rowspan="2"| d
| ?
| tu, du
|
|
|
| f
| rowspan="2"| d
| style="color:gray"| dw
| style="color:gray"| dw
|- align=center
!((PIE|*dw))
| style="color:gray"| dv
| (e)rk
| tu, du
|
|
|
| b
| style="color:gray"| tw
| style="color:gray"| tw
|- align=center
!((PIE|*tl))
| style="color:gray"|
|
| sl
| kl, sl
|
|
|
|
| tl
|
| kl
| tl
|
|
|- align=center
!((PIE|*dl))
| ll
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|- align=center
!((PIE|*dn))
| nn, ṇṇ
|
| 
|
| 
|
|
|
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ḱw))
| style="color:gray"| śv
| sp
| style="color:gray"| sv
| style="color:gray"| šv
| s
| <span style="color:gray">sk,</span> š
|
|
|
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| style="color:gray"| qu ((IPA|[kʷ]))
| style="color:gray"| cu ((IPA|[kʷ]))
| style="color:gray"| ((transl|got|ƕ)) ((IPA|[xʷ]))
| style="color:gray"| wh
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ǵʰw))
| style="color:gray"| hv
|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| zv
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| žv
| rowspan="2"| z
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ǵw))
| style="color:gray"| jv
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| style="color:gray"| q ((IPA|[kʷ]))
| style="color:gray"| qu ((IPA|[kw]))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*sw))
| style="color:gray"| sv
| xuu ((IPA|[xʷ]))
| style="color:gray"| sv
| style="color:gray"| sv
| v, d<ref group="CC">Word initially. See Orel, V. (2000).</ref>
| kʿ ((IPA|[kʰ]))
| colspan="2" |normal dev.
| style="color:gray"| h
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| style="color:gray"| su ((IPA|[sw]))
| s
| style="color:gray"| sw
| style="color:gray"| sw
|- align=center
!((PIE|*sp))
| style="color:gray"| sp
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh>In contrast to ((PIE|*s)) normally giving ((PIE|''h'')) in Avestan, Armenian and Greek.</ref>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| sp
|((PIE|f))
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/><br/>/ pʿ ((IPA|[pʰ]))
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/> || ?
| style="color:gray"| sp
|((PIE|f))
|colspan="2"|((PIE|sp)) <ref group=CC name=GSL>[[Germanic spirant law]]: ((PIE|*p, *t, *k, *kʷ)) remain stops when preceded by another stop or ((PIE|*s)).</ref>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*sbʰ))
| style="color:gray"|
| spʰ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-align=center
!((PIE|*sd))
| d; ḷ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍ, ḍḍ
| zd
| zd
| zd
| 
| st
|
|
| 
| 
| d
| -t- ((IPA|[d]))
| st
| st
|- align=center
!((PIE|*sdʰ))
| dh; ḷh<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍh, ḍḍh
| zd
| zd
| zd
| 
|
|
|
| sth
| 
| 
| -t- ((IPA|[d]))
| zd
| d
|- align=center
!((PIE|*st))
| st; ṣṭ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" />
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| st
| style="color:gray"| ((PIE|sht)) ((IPA|[ʃt]))
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|rowspan="5"|((PIE|s)); ((PIE|tt))/((PIE|ss))<ref group=CC name=VCV>Between vowels.</ref>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|((PIE|st))
|colspan="2"|((PIE|st)) <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*sḱ))
|((PIE|ch)) ((IPA|[t͡ɕʰ])); ((PIE|cch))<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
|((PIE|s))?
|((PIE|sk))
|((PIE|š))?
|((PIE|h))
|?? ((PIE|č`)); ((PIE|c`))<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|rowspan="2"|sk; <ref group="CC" name="noh"/><br/>kh ((IPA|[kʰ]));<ref group=CC name=RX>After ((PIE|r, l, m, n, t, d)), possibly other consonants?</ref><br />skh ((IPA|[skʰ])) <ref group=CC>After (Greek) ((PIE|th)) causes aspiration in the cluster and then disappears, typical example *πάθ-σκ-ω (*páth-sk-ō) gives πάσχω (páskhō). ((clarify|date=August 2016|reason=does this mean a cluster *-dʰsk-?))</ref>
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|((PIE|sc)) ((IPA|[sk]))
|rowspan="3" style="color:gray"|((PIE|sc)) ((IPA|[sk]))
|rowspan="2"|((PIE|sk)) <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|rowspan="3"|((PIE|sh)) ((IPA|[ʃ]))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*sk))
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| sk, {śc, ch}<ref group=CC name=nvh>Before front vowels.</ref>
|rowspan="2"| sk, sč <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|rowspan="2"|?
|rowspan="2"| sk <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|- align=center
!((PIE|*skʷ))
| style="color:gray"|norm.
| style="color:gray"|((PIE|squ)) ((IPA|[skʷ]))
|((PIE|sq)) <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*t+t)) ((IPA|[tst]))
|((PIE|tt)); ((PIE|tth)) <ref group=CC name=P+H>Before an original laryngeal.</ref>
|((PIE|st)); ((PIE|sθ))<ref group=CC name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>?
| colspan="2"|((PIE|st))
|((PIE|s))
|((PIE|s))?
|((PIE|zt)), ((PIE|zzašt)), ((PIE|zzazz)) ((IPA|[tst]))
|((PIE|ss))?
|((PIE|st))
|colspan="2"|((PIE|ss))
|colspan="2"|((PIE|ss)) / ((PIE|st))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*sǵ))
| jj
| 
|
| 
| 
|
|
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|- align=center
!((PIE|*sgʰ))
| jj<ref group=CC name=nvh/>
| 
|
| 
| 
|
|
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|- align=center
!((PIE|*dt))
| tt
| st
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|st
| st
| 
| s
| 
| ss
| ss [s]
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ddʰ))
| ddʰ
| zd
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
| 
| 
| d
| t
| 
| 
|- align=center
!((PIE|*dʰt))
| ddʰ
| zd, st
| 
| st
| 
|
|
|
| st
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|- align=center
! ((PIE|*pt))
| style="color:gray"| pt
| ft 
| t?
| style="color:gray"| pt
| rowspan="4"| t || || || |
| style="color:gray"| pt ||
| style="color:gray"| pt
|rowspan="4"| cht ((IPA|[xt]))
|colspan="2"| ft <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
! ((PIE|*ḱt))
| ṣṭ ((IPA|[ʂʈ]))
| št ((IPA|[ʃt]))
| st
| št ((IPA|[ʃt]))
| |
|rowspan="3"|
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ct ((IPA|[kt]))
|rowspan="3"| ht <ref group=CC name=GSL/> || rowspan="3"| ght ((IPA|[t])) <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
! ((PIE|*kt))
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|rowspan="2"| xt
|rowspan="2"| t?
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|rowspan="2"|
|- align=center
! ((PIE|*kʷt))
| || style="color:gray"| pt ||
| ct ((IPA|[kt]))
|- align=center
! ((PIE|*ps))
| ps
| || || || || || ||
| style="color:gray"| ps ||
| style="color:gray"| ps || s, ss || style="color:gray"| fs || ps
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ts))
| ts
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|- align=center
! ((PIE|*ḱs))
| kṣ || š || || || sh ((IPA|[ʃ])) ||
| ||
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ks
| rowspan="2"|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| x ((IPA|[ks]))
| rowspan="2"|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| hs
| rowspan="3"| x ((IPA|[ks]))
|- align=center
! ((PIE|*ks))
| rowspan="2"| kṣ<ref group=CC name=Ruki>After ((PIE|r, u, k, i)) ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref> || rowspan="2"| xš<ref group=CC name=Ruki/>
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
| || (ks)
|- align=center
! ((PIE|*kʷs))
| style="color:gray"| kʷs || || style="color:gray"| ps || || x ((IPA|[ks])) || ||
|- align=center
!((PIE|*gs))
| kṣ
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|- align=center
!((PIE|*gʷs))
| kṣ
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ǵʰs))
| kṣ
| ž
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
| 
| ks
| 
| 
| 
|
|- align=center
!((PIE|*gʰs))
| kṣ
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|- align=center
!((PIE|*gʷʰs))
| kṣ
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
| ps
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|- align=center
!((PIE|*tḱ))
| kṣ
| š
| 
| 
| k
|
|
|
| kt
| 
| s
| 
| 
| 
|- align=center
!((PIE|*tk))
| kṣ
| xš
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
| kt
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|- align=center
!((PIE|*dʰǵʰ))
| kṣ
| z
| 
| ž
| 
|
| tk
| tk/k
| khth
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|- align=center
!((PIE|*dʰgʰ))
| kṣ
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
| tk
|
| 
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
|- align=center
!((PIE|*dʰgʷʰ))
| kṣ
| γž
| 
| 
| 
|
| kts
|
| phth
| 
| s
| 
| 
| 
|- align=center|
! PIE
! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]]
! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !! [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
|}

Notes to Table 2:
((reflist|group=CC))

==Vowels and syllabic consonants==
This table shows the Proto-Indo-European vowels and [[syllabic consonant]]s (as reconstructed both before and after the acceptance of [[laryngeal theory]]), and their [[Reflex (linguistics)|reflexes]] in selected Indo-European daughter languages. Background and further details can be found in various related articles, including [[Proto-Indo-European phonology]], the articles on the various sound laws referred to in the introduction, and the articles on the various IE proto-languages, language groups and language phonologies.

{| class=wikitable
! rowspan=2|Trad. PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryng. PIE]] !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Avestan|Av.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]]<ref group=V name=initial>In initial syllables only.</ref> !! rowspan=2|[[Proto-Celtic]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref group=V name=nonfinal>In non-final syllables only.</ref> !! colspan=2|[[Old English]]<ref group=V name=initial/>
|- align=center
! normal !! [[Germanic umlaut|umlauted]]<ref group=V name=iumlaut>Before ''i'', ''ī'', or /j/ in the next syllable in [[Proto-Germanic]] ([[Germanic umlaut|''i''-umlaut]]).</ref>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*e))
!((PIE|*e)), ((PIE|*h₁e)) 
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|((PIE|a))
|colspan="3"|((PIE|e))
|((PIE|je, ie, e, i)); ((PIE|ja))<ref group=V name=closed>In a closed syllable.</ref>
|((PIE|ä))
|e, ʔe, i
|colspan="3"|((PIE|e))
|((PIE|i)); ((PIE|aí)) ((IPA|[ɛ]))<ref group=V name=Vrh>Before ''r, h''.  Gothic, but not other Germanic languages, merges /e/ and /i/.</ref>
|((PIE|e; eo))<ref group=V name=OE>Before ''h, w'', or before ''r, l'' plus a consonant ([[Old English phonology#Breaking and retraction|"breaking"]]).</ref> || ((PIE|i; ie))<ref group=V name=OE/>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*a))
!(((PIE|*a))<ref group=V name=a?>The existence of PIE non-allophonic ''a'' is disputed.</ref>), ((PIE|*h₂e)) 
|rowspan=3|((PIE|o))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|a))
|((PIE|a))
|((PIE|ha, a))
|((PIE|ā))
|((PIE|ha, a))
|colspan="3"|((PIE|a))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|a))
|rowspan=6|((PIE|æ)); ((PIE|a));<ref group=V name=bright>Before a back vowel in the next syllable ([[Anglo-Frisian brightening#A restoration|''a'' restoration]]).</ref> ((PIE|ea))<ref group=V name=OE/>
|rowspan=6|((PIE|e; ie))<ref group=V name=OE/>
|- align=center
!rowspan=2|((PIE|*o))
!((PIE|*h₃e))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|o, a))
|rowspan=5|((PIE|a))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|a, e))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|a))
|rowspan="2" colspan="3"|((PIE|o))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*o))
|colspan="2"|((PIE|a)); ((PIE|ā))<ref group=V name=Brugmann>In open syllables ([[Brugmann's law]]).</ref>
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|((PIE|*ə))<ref group=V name=CVC>Between consonants, or at the end of a word after a consonant.</ref>
!((PIE|*h₁))<ref group=V name=CVC/>
|rowspan=3|((PIE|i))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|i, ∅))
|rowspan="6" colspan="2"|((PIE|∅))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|a, ∅))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|ā))
|∅
|((PIE|e))
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|((PIE|a))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|a, ∅))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*h₂))<ref group=V name=CVC/>
|ḫ
|((PIE|a))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*h₃))<ref group=V name=CVC/>
|∅
|((PIE|o))
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|((PIE|*-))
!((PIE|*h₁-))<ref group=V name=#VC>At the beginning of a word, followed by a consonant.</ref>
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|((PIE|∅))
|((PIE|e (a?)))
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|((PIE|∅))
|a, ∅
|((PIE|e (o)))
|rowspan="3" colspan="5"|((PIE|∅))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*h₂-))<ref group=V name=#VC/>
|rowspan="2"|((PIE|a))
|ḫa
|((PIE|a))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*h₃-))<ref group=V name=#VC/>
|((PIE|a, ha))
|((PIE|o))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ē))
!((PIE|*ē)), ((PIE|*eh₁))
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|((PIE|ā))
|((PIE|ě))
|((PIE|ė))
|((PIE|i))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|o, ua))
|((PIE|a/e))?; ((PIE|ā))?<ref group=V name=final>In a final syllable.</ref>
|((PIE|ē, e, i))
|colspan=2|((PIE|ē))
|((PIE|ī))
|((PIE|ē))
|colspan=2|((PIE|ǣ))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ā))
!(((PIE|*ā))<ref group=V name=a?/>), ((PIE|*eh₂))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|a))
|((PIE|o)) ((IPA|[oː]))
|((PIE|a))
|((PIE|a/o))?
|((PIE|a, ah))
|((PIE|ā > ē))<ref group=V name=Attic>''ā'' > ''ē'' in Attic and Ionic dialects only.</ref>
|((PIE|ā))
|((PIE|ā))
|rowspan=2 colspan=2|((PIE|ō))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|ē))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ō))
!((PIE|*ō)), ((PIE|*eh₃))
|((PIE|uo))
|((PIE|u))
|((PIE|e))
|((PIE|a/ā))?; ((PIE|ū))?<ref group=V name=final/>
|((PIE|a, ā))
|colspan=2|((PIE|ō))
|((PIE|ā)); ((PIE|ū))<ref group=V name=final/>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*i))
!((PIE|*i))
|colspan=2|((PIE|i))
|((PIE|ь))
|((PIE|i))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|i))
|((PIE|i)); ((PIE|e))<ref group=V name=a>Before ''ā'' in the following syllable.</ref>
|((PIE|ä))
|rowspan=4|((PIE|i)), ī
|colspan=3|((PIE|i))
|((PIE|i)); ((PIE|aí)) ((IPA|[ɛ]))<ref group=V name=Vrh/>
|colspan=2|((PIE|i))
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|((PIE|*ī))
!((PIE|*ih₁))
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|((PIE|ī))
|rowspan=4|((PIE|i))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|y)) ((IPA|[iː]))
|rowspan=4|((PIE|i))
|((PIE|i))
|((PIE|ī))
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|((PIE|ī))
|rowspan=4|((PIE|ei)) ((IPA|[iː]))
|rowspan=4 colspan=2|((PIE|ī))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ih₂))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|i))<br/>or ((PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>a))?<ref group=V name=breaking>The so-called [[vowel breaking|breaking]] is disputed (typical examples are ((PIE|*proti-h₃kʷo-)) > Ved. ''prátīkam'' ~ Gk. ((lang|grc|πρόσωπον)); ((PIE|*gʷih₃u̯o-)) > Ved. ''jīvá-'' ~ Arm. ''keank‘'', Gk. ((lang|grc|ζωός)); ((PIE|*duh₂ro-)) > Ved. ''dūrá-'' ~ Arm. ''erkar'', Gk. ((lang|grc|δηρός)))</ref>
|rowspan=2|((PIE|yā))
|((PIE|ī)) or ((PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ā))?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ih₃))
|((PIE|ī)) or ((PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ō))?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ei))
!((PIE|*ei)), ((PIE|*h₁ei))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|ai > ē))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|ai > ōi)),<br/>((PIE|āi > aē))<ref group=V name=Brugmann/> 
|((PIE|ei)); ((PIE|ie))<ref group=V name=stress>Under stress.</ref> 
|((PIE|i))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|e))
|((PIE|ē))
|((PIE|ei))
|((PIE|ī))
|((PIE|ē))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*oi))
!((PIE|*oi)), ((PIE|*h₃ei))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|ě))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|ai)); ((PIE|ie))<ref group=V name=stress/> 
|rowspan=2|((PIE|e))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|e, ai))
|rowspan=2|ē, ai
|((PIE|oi))
|((PIE|ū))
|((PIE|oi))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|ái))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|ā))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|ǣ))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ai))
!(((PIE|*ai))<ref group=V name=a?/>), ((PIE|*h₂ei))
|((PIE|ai))
|((PIE|ae))
|((PIE|ai))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ēi))
!((PIE|*ēi))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|āi)) > ((PIE|ai)); ((PIE|ā))<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=3|((PIE|āi)); ((PIE|ā(i)))<ref group=V name=final/>
|((PIE|i))
| 
|
|((PIE|i))
|
|ē
|((PIE|ēi))
|((PIE|ī))?
| 
|((PIE|ei)) ((IPA|[iː]))
|colspan=2|((PIE|ī))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ōi))
!((PIE|*ōi (*oei)))
|((PIE|y)); ((PIE|u))<ref group=V name=final/>
|((PIE|ai)); ((PIE|ui))<ref group=V name=final/>
|
|rowspan=2|((PIE|e, ai))
|
|((PIE|ai))
|((PIE|ōi))
|((PIE|ō))
|((PIE|u))<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=2|((PIE|ái))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|ā))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|ǣ))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*āi))
!((PIE|*eh₂ei))
|((PIE|ě))
| 
|
|
|ai
|((PIE|āi > ēi))<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|((PIE|ae))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*u))
!((PIE|*u))
| colspan="2"|((PIE|u))
|((PIE|ъ))
|((PIE|u))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|u))
|((PIE|u)); ((PIE|y))<ref group=V name=i>Before ''i'' in the following syllable.</ref>
|((PIE|ä))
|rowspan=7|((PIE|u))
|((PIE|u))
|((PIE|u))
|((PIE|u)); ((PIE|o))<ref group=V name=wa>Before ''wa''.</ref>
|((PIE|u)); ((PIE|aú)) ((IPA|[ɔ]))<ref group=V name=Vrh/>
|((PIE|u)); ((PIE|o))<ref group=V name=nonhigh>Before a non-high vowel in the next syllable ([[Germanic a-mutation|''a''-mutation]]).</ref>
|((PIE|y))
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|((PIE|*ū))
!((PIE|*uh₁))
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|((PIE|ū))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|y))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|ū))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|y)); ((PIE|i))<ref group=V name=final/>
|((PIE|u))
|((PIE|ū))
|rowspan=3 colspan="4"|((PIE|ū))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|ȳ))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*uh₂))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|u))<br/>or ((PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>a))?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|rowspan=2|((PIE|wā))
|((PIE|ū)) or ((PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>ā))?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*uh₃))
|((PIE|ū)) or ((PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>ō))?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*eu))
!((PIE|*eu)), ((PIE|*h₁eu))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|au)) > ((PIE|ō))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|ə̄u)); ((PIE|ao))<ref group=V name=Brugmann/> 
|((PIE|ju))
|((PIE|iau))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|oy))
|((PIE|e))
|((PIE|u))
|((PIE|eu))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|ū))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|ou))
|((PIE|iu))
|((PIE|ēo))
|rowspan=5|((PIE|īe))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ou))
!((PIE|*ou)),((PIE|*h₃eu))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|u))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|au))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|a))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|o, au))
|((PIE|ou))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|áu))
|rowspan=2|((PIE|ēa))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*au))
!(((PIE|*au))<ref group=V name=a?/>), ((PIE|*h₂eu))
|((PIE|aw))
|((PIE|au))
|((PIE|au))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ēu))
!((PIE|*ēu))
|rowspan="2"|((PIE|āu)) > ((PIE|au))
|rowspan="2"|((PIE|āu))
|((PIE|u))
|((PIE|iau)) 
|
|((PIE|e))
|
|
|
|((PIE|ū))?
| 
|((PIE|iu))
|((PIE|ēo))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*ōu))
!((PIE|*ōu))
|
|
|
|((PIE|a))
|
|au
|((PIE|ō))
|
|
|((PIE|áu))
|((PIE|ēa))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*m̥))
!((PIE|*m̥))
|colspan="2"|((PIE|a))
|rowspan=4|((PIE|ę))
|((PIE|im̃)); ((PIE|um̃))<ref group=V name=labvel> In the neighbourhood of labiovelars.</ref>
|((PIE|am))
|rowspan=10|((PIE|a))
|((PIE|äm))
|a, un
|((PIE|a))
|((PIE|em))
|((PIE|em, am))
|rowspan=5|((PIE|um))
|rowspan=5|((PIE|um))
|rowspan=5|((PIE|ym))
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|((PIE|*m̥̅))
!((PIE|*mh₁))
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|((PIE|ā))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|ìm)); ((PIE|ùm))<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|((PIE|ama))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|mā))
|rowspan=3|
|((PIE|mē))
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|((PIE|mā))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*mh₂))
|((PIE|mā > mē))<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*mh₃))
|((PIE|mō))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*m̥m))
!((PIE|*m̥m))
|colspan="2"|((PIE|am))
|((PIE|ьm/ъm))
|((PIE|im)); ((PIE|um))<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|((PIE|am))
|
|
|((PIE|am))
|((PIE|em))
|((PIE|am))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*n̥))
!((PIE|*n̥))
|colspan="2"|((PIE|a))
|rowspan=4|((PIE|ę))
|((PIE|iñ)); ((PIE|uñ))<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|((PIE|an))
|((PIE|än))
|an
|((PIE|a))
|((PIE|en))
|((PIE|en, an))
|rowspan=5|((PIE|un))
|rowspan=5|((PIE|un))
|rowspan=5|((PIE|yn))
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|((PIE|*n̥̄))
!((PIE|*nh₁))
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|((PIE|ā))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|ìn)); ((PIE|ùn))<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|((PIE|ana))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|nā))
|rowspan=3|
|((PIE|nē))
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|((PIE|nā))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*nh₂))
|((PIE|nā > nē)) <ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*nh₃))
|((PIE|nō))
|- align=center
!|((PIE|*n̥n))
!|((PIE|*n̥n))
|colspan="2"|((PIE|an))
|((PIE|ьn/ъn))
|((PIE|iñ)); ((PIE|uñ))<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|((PIE|an))
|
|
|((PIE|an))
|((PIE|en))
|((PIE|an))
|- align=center
!|((PIE|*l̥))
!((PIE|*l̥))
|((PIE|r̥))
|((PIE|ərə))
|rowspan=4|((PIE|lь/lъ))
|((PIE|il̃)); ((PIE|ul̃))<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|((PIE|al))
|((PIE|il, li; ul, lu))
|((PIE|äl))
|al
|((PIE|la))
|((PIE|ol))
|((PIE|li));<ref group=V name=VPM>Before a stop or ''m''.</ref> ((PIE|al))
|rowspan=5|((PIE|ul))
|rowspan=5|((PIE|ul; ol))<ref group=V name=nonhigh/>
|rowspan=5|((PIE|yl))
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|((PIE|*l̥̄))
!((PIE|*lh₁))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|īr)); ((PIE|ūr))<ref group=V name=labial>In the neighbourhood of labials.</ref>
|rowspan=3|((PIE|arə))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|ìl)); ((PIE|ùl))<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|((PIE|ala))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|al))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|lā))
|rowspan=3|
|((PIE|lē))
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|((PIE|lā))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*lh₂))
|((PIE|lā > lē))<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*lh₃))
|((PIE|lō))
|- align=center
!|((PIE|*l̥l))
!|((PIE|*l̥l))
|((PIE|ir)); ((PIE|ur))<ref group=V name=labial/>
|((PIE|ar))
|((PIE|ьl/ъl))
|((PIE|il)); ((PIE|ul))<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|((PIE|al, la))
|
|
|
|((PIE|al))
|((PIE|el))
|((PIE|al))
|- align=center
!|((PIE|*r̥))
!((PIE|*r̥))
|((PIE|r̥))
|((PIE|ərə))
|rowspan=4|((PIE|rь/rъ))
|((PIE|ir̃)); ((PIE|ur̃))<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|((PIE|ar))
|((PIE|ir, ri; ur, ru))
|((PIE|är))
|ar, ur
|((PIE|ra))
|((PIE|or))
|((PIE|ri));<ref group=V name=VPM/> ((PIE|ar))
|rowspan=5|((PIE|aúr)) ((IPA|[ɔr]))
|rowspan=5|((PIE|ur; or))<ref group=V name=nonhigh/>
|rowspan=5|((PIE|yr))
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|((PIE|*r̥̄))
!((PIE|*rh₁))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|īr)); ((PIE|ūr))<ref group=V name=labial/>
|rowspan=3|((PIE|arə))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|ìr)); ((PIE|ùr))<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|((PIE|ara))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|ra))
|rowspan=3|((PIE|rā))
|rowspan=3|
|((PIE|rē))
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|((PIE|rā))
|- align=center
!((PIE|*rh₂))
|((PIE|rā > rē))<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
!((PIE|*rh₃))
|((PIE|rō))
|- align=center
!|((PIE|*r̥r))
!|((PIE|*r̥r))
|((PIE|ir)); ((PIE|ur))<ref group=V name=labial/>
|((PIE|ar))
|((PIE|ьr/ъr))
|((PIE|ir)); ((PIE|ur))<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|((PIE|ar))
|
|
|
|((PIE|ar))
|((PIE|ar))
|((PIE|ar))
|- align=center

! rowspan=2|Trad. PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryng. PIE]] !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Avestan|Av.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]]<ref group=V name=initial/> !! rowspan=2|[[Proto-Celtic]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref group=V name=nonfinal/> !! normal !! [[Germanic umlaut|umlauted]]<ref group=V name=iumlaut/>
|- align=center
!colspan=2|[[Old English]]<ref group=V name=initial/>
|}

Notes:
((reflist|group=V))

==Examples==
See the [[wikt:Category:Proto-Indo-European roots|list of Proto-Indo-European roots]] hosted at Wiktionary.

===((PIE|*p))===
((PIE|*[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/pṓds|pṓds]])), ~ ((PIE|*ped-)), "foot".<ref name="m-b">((cite book|last1=Meier-Brügger|first1=Michael|last2=Gertmenian|first2=Charles (translator)|title=Indo-European linguistics|date=2003|publisher=de Gruyter|location=Berlin [u.a.]|isbn=3-11-017433-2|pages=101–131))</ref>
* [[Vedic Sanskrit]]: ''pā́t'', ''pád-''
* [[Avestan]]: ''paδa'', ''pāδa''
* [[Old Church Slavonic]]: ''pěšĭ'', "on foot"
* [[Albanian language|Albanian]]: ''poshtë'', "below"
* [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]: ''pėda'', "foot bottom"
* [[Armenian language|Armenian]]: ''otn''
* [[Tocharian languages|Tocharian]]: A ''pe'', B ''pai''
* [[Luwian language|Luwian]]: ''pa-da-'', ''pa-ta-''
* [[Ancient Greek]]: ''poús'', ''podós''
* [[Latin]]: ''pēs'', ''pedis''
* [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]]: ''ozas''
* [[Gothic language|Gothic]]: ''fotus''  (*p -> f by Grimm's Law)

===((PIE|*t))===
((PIE|*[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/tréyes|tréyes]])), "three".<ref name="m-b"/>
* [[Vedic Sanskrit]]: ''tráyas''
* [[Avestan]]: ''θrāiiō''
* [[Old Church Slavonic]]: ''trĭje''
* [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]: ''trỹs''
* [[Albanian language|Albanian]]: ''tre''
* [[Ancient Greek]]: ''treĩs''
* [[Latin]]: ''trēs''
* [[Old Irish]]: ''trí''
* [[Welsh language|Welsh]]: ''tri''
* [[Armenian language|Armenian]]: ''erekʿ''
* [[Gothic language|Gothic]]: ''þreis''  (*t -> þ by Grimm's Law)

===((PIE|*ḱ))===
((PIE|*[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ḱm̥tóm|ḱm̥tóm]])), "hundred" (from earlier ((PIE|*dḱm̥tóm)))<ref name="m-b"/>
* [[Vedic Sanskrit]]: ''śatám''
* [[Avestan|Younger Avestan]]: ''satəm''
* [[Old Church Slavonic]]: ''sŭto''
* [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]: ''šim̃tas''
* [[Tocharian languages|Tocharian]]: A ''känt'', B ''känte''
* [[Ancient Greek]]: ''hekatón''
* [[Latin]]: ''centum''
* [[Old Irish]]: ''cét''
* [[Welsh language|Welsh]]: ''cant''
* [[Gothic language|Gothic]]: ''hund'' (from [[Proto-Germanic]] ''*hund-'')<ref>((cite book
|first=Hans Heinrich
|last=Hock
|title=Principles of historical linguistics
|publisher=Walter de Gruyter
|location=Berlin; New York
|year=1986
|isbn=3-11-010600-0
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bZi64Oi8mDMC
|page=132
))</ref>

===((PIE|*k))===
((PIE|*[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/kréwh₂s|kréwh₂s]])), "raw flesh"<ref name="m-b"/>
* [[Vedic Sanskrit]]: ''kravís-'', "raw meat"
* [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]: ''kraũjas'', "blood"
* [[Old Church Slavonic]]: ''kry'', "blood"
* [[Ancient Greek]]: ''kréas'', "meat"
* [[Latin]]: ''cruor'', "raw blood"
* [[Old Irish]]: ''crú'', "blood, gore"
* [[Old English]]: ''hrǣw'', "raw"

==Sound laws within PIE==
A few phonological laws can be reconstructed that may have been effective prior to the final breakup of PIE by [[internal reconstruction]].
* [[Sievers' law]] ([[Sievers' law#Edgerton|Edgerton's law]], Lindeman's option)
* [[Bartholomae's law]]
* [[Szemerényi's law]]
* [[Stang's law]]
* [[Siebs' law]]
* [[Weise's law]]

==See also==
* [[Centum and satem languages]]
* [[Balto-Slavic languages]]
* [[Italo-Celtic]]
* [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language]]
* [[Proto-Iranian]]
* [[Proto-Greek language]]
* [[Proto-Celtic]]
* [[Proto-Germanic]]
* [[Proto-Indo-European language]]
* [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]]
* [[Kurgan hypothesis]]
* [[Indo-European languages]]
* [[List of Indo-European languages]]

==Further reading==
*((cite web|url=https://www.italian-journal-linguistics.com/app/uploads/2021/05/9_Kuemmel.pdf|title=Voiceless high vowels and syncope in older Indo-European|work=Martin Kümmel, department of Indo-European linguistics, [[University of Jena]]))
*((cite web|url=https://archive.org/download/kummelljubljana2019.pdf_202011/k%C3%BCmmelljubljana2019.pdf.pdf|title=Uvular Stops or a Glottal Fricative? Theory and Data in Recent Reconstructions of PIE "Laryngeals"|work=Martin Kümmel, department of Indo-European linguistics, [[University of Jena]]))

==References==
((reflist))

((Proto-Indo-European language))

[[Category:Indo-European linguistics]]
[[Category:Sound laws]]

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Module:Lang (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Lang/ISO 639 synonyms (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Lang/data (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Language/data/iana languages (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Language/data/iana regions (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Language/data/iana scripts (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Language/data/iana suppressed scripts (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Language/data/iana variants (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Message box (view source) (protected)
Module:Message box/ambox.css (view source) (protected)
Module:Message box/configuration (view source) (protected)
Module:Namespace detect/config (view source) (protected)
Module:Namespace detect/data (view source) (protected)
Module:Navbar (view source) (protected)
Module:Navbar/configuration (view source) (protected)
Module:Navbar/styles.css (view source) (protected)
Module:Navbox (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Navbox/configuration (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Navbox/styles.css (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Pagetype (view source) (protected)
Module:Pagetype/config (view source) (protected)
Module:Pagetype/disambiguation (view source) (protected)
Module:Pagetype/setindex (view source) (protected)
Module:Pagetype/softredirect (view source) (protected)
Module:SDcat (view source) (protected)
Module:Side box (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Side box/styles.css (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:String (view source) (protected)
Module:TableTools (view source) (protected)
Module:Unicode data (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Unicode data/scripts (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Unsubst (view source) (protected)
Module:Wikitext Parsing (view source) (protected)
Module:Yesno (view source) (protected)

Return to Indo-European sound laws.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_sound_laws"