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((short description|Angolan politician and rebel leader (1934–2002)))
((Use dmy dates|date=February 2023))
((Infobox military person
| honorific_prefix = [[General]]
| name          = Jonas Savimbi
| birth_name    = Jonas Malheiro Savimbi
| birth_date    = ((birth date|1934|8|3|df=y))
| death_date    = ((death date and age|2002|2|22|1934|8|3|df=y))
| allegiance    = ((flagicon image|Bandeira da FNLA.svg)) [[National Liberation Front of Angola|FNLA]] <small>(1964–66)</small><br />((flagicon image |Flag of UNITA.svg)) [[UNITA]] <small>(1966–2002)</small>
| commands      = President and Supreme Commander of [[UNITA]] <small>(1966–2002)</small>
| birth_place   = [[Munhango]], [[Bié Province]], [[Portuguese Angola]]
| death_place   = [[Lucusse]], [[Moxico Province]], [[Angola]]
| image         = Johnas Savimbi, leader of Unita, the Angolan Rebels (larger picture) (cropped).png
| image_upright =
| caption       = Savimbi in 1990
| nickname      = 
| serviceyears  = 1964–2002
| rank          = [[General]]
| unit          = 
| battles       = [[Angolan War of Independence]]<br />[[Angolan Civil War]]
| awards        = 
| laterwork     = 
))

'''Jonas Malheiro Savimbi''' (((IPA-pt|ˈʒɔnɐʃ ˈsavĩbi|lang)); 3 August 1934 – 22 February 2002) was an [[Angola]]n revolutionary, politician, and rebel military leader who founded and led the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola ([[UNITA]]). UNITA was one of several groups which waged a [[guerrilla war]] against [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] colonial rule from 1966 to 1974. Once independence was achieved, it then  became an anti-communist group which confronted the ruling People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola ([[MPLA]]) during the [[Angolan Civil War]]. Savimbi had extensive contact with anti-communist activists in the United States, including [[Jack Abramoff]] and was one of the leading anti-communist voices in the world.<ref name="allafrica.com"/> Savimbi was killed in a clash with government troops in 2002.<ref>((citation |title=The World fact book |chapter=Introduction: Angola |chapter-url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/angola/ |date=8 November 2021 |df=dmy-all))</ref>

==Early life==
((more citations needed|section|date=February 2019))
Jonas Malheiro Savimbi was born in Munhango, [[Bié Province]], a small town on the [[Benguela Railway]], and raised in Chilesso, in the same province. Savimbi's father, Lote, was a stationmaster on Angola's [[Benguela railway]] line and a preacher of the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] ''Igreja Evangélica Congregacional de Angola (Evangelical Congregational Church of Angola)'', founded and maintained by American missionaries. Both his parents were members of the Bieno group of the [[Ovimbundu]], the people who later served as Savimbi's major political base.<ref name="query.nytimes.com">((citation |title=Jonas Savimbi, 67, Rebel of Charisma and Tenacity |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE7D6103EF930A15751C0A9649C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=23 February 2003)).</ref><ref>For a careful reconstruction of Savimbi's trajectory, ((citation |last=Marcum |first=John |title=The Angolan Revolution |volume=I. Anatomy of an explosion (1950–1962) |publisher=MIT Press |location=London / Cambridge, MA |year=1969)).</ref>

In his early years, Savimbi was educated mainly in Protestant schools, but also attended [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] schools. At the age of 24 he received a scholarship to study in [[Portugal]]. 

Instead he became associated with students from Angola and other Portuguese colonies who were preparing themselves for anti-colonial resistance and had contacts with the clandestine Portuguese Communist Party. He knew [[Agostinho Neto]], who was at that time studying medicine and who later went on to become president of the MPLA and Angola's first state President. Under increasing pressure from the Portuguese [[secret police]] ([[PIDE]]), Savimbi left Portugal for [[Switzerland]] with the assistance of Portuguese and French communists and other sympathizers, and eventually wound up in [[Lausanne]]. There he was able to obtain a new scholarship from American missionaries and studied social sciences. He then went on to the University at [[Fribourg]] for further studies.((efn|1=((Harvnb | Bridgland | 1988 | pp = 421ff)) reproduces the legend that Savimbi started studying medicine in Portugal, and concluded these studies in Geneva. In fact he never studied medicine, and obtained a degree in the social and political sciences, the nature of which was never established. However, as is customary in Portuguese-speaking countries, Savimbi was from then on addressed as "Dr."  While it was often assumed in other countries that Savimbi (like Agostinho Neto) held a doctoral degree, his degree was in fact roughly comparable to that of the European BA.))

While there, probably in August 1960,((Sfn | Chilcote | 1972 | p = 63)) he met [[Holden Roberto]], who was already a rising star in émigré circles. Roberto was a founding member of the UPA ([[ União das Populaçoes de Angola]]) and was already known for his efforts to promote Angolan independence at the [[United Nations]]. He tried to recruit Savimbi who seems to have been undecided whether to commit himself to the cause of Angolan independence at this point in his life.

In late September 1960, Savimbi was asked to give a speech in Kampala, Uganda on behalf of the  UDEAN (União Democrática dos Estudantes da Africa Negra), a student organization  affiliated with the MPLA. At this meeting he met [[Tom Mboya]] who took him to Kenya to see [[Jomo Kenyatta]]. They both urged him to join the UPA. He told French interviewers "J'ai été convaincu par Kenyatta" ("I was convinced by Kenyatta").<ref>Loiseau & de Roux, p. 99.</ref>  He immediately wrote a letter to Roberto putting himself at his service, which was taken in person to New York by Mboya. Upon his return to Switzerland, Roberto telephoned him.  They met in Léopoldville (Kinshasa) in December 1960, and left immediately for the United States. It was the first of many visits.

There are considerable differences in the source material about the date of Savimbi's official induction into the UPA. [[Fred Bridgland]], who wrote a much-cited biography of Savimbi, says that Savimbi was "inducted into the UPA" on 1 February 1961.((sfn|Bridgland|1988|p=49)) Nonetheless, he may not have officially joined the UPA until late 1961.((efn|1=In his statement of resignation from the FNLA, Savimbi says he joined "at the end of 1961".((sfn|Chilcote|1972|p=157)) This corresponds with [[George Houser]]'s statement, perhaps taken from the same source, that Savimbi joined in "late 1961".((sfn|Houser|1989|p=155))))

It certainly seems that Savimbi was not in the inner circle of UPA activists in early 1961. He took no part in planning the uprising of March 1961, nor did he participate in it.

Savimbi stayed in Léopoldville until the end of March 1961, then went to Switzerland to prepare for examinations. He may have failed, for he abandoned medical studies in Fribourg, and in December 1961 enrolled at [[Lausanne University]] in Law and International Politics.

By September 1961, Africans from the Portuguese colonies studying abroad formed the UGEAN (União Geral dos Estudantes da Africa Negra Sob Dominacão Colonial Portuguesa) at a meeting in [[Rabat]], Morocco. Again, this organization was affiliated with the MPLA.

Holden Roberto and the UPA wanted a student organization affiliated with their party. In December 1961, Roberto chaired a meeting at Camp Green Lane near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Savimbi attended this meeting and became one of a number of organizers who created the UNEA, (União Nacional dos Estudantes Angolanos) in March 1962 at Lucerne, Switzerland. Savimbi was elected Secretary-General.((sfn|Paget|2015|p=264))

Savimbi participated in UPA activities while continuing to study in Switzerland. He traveled widely on behalf of the organization: to Yugoslavia for the first [[Non-Aligned Movement Summit]] in September 1961, with Holden Roberto, and on to New York for the United Nations meeting later that fall.

In a very short time, he was a member of the Executive Committee of the UPA. It was he who encouraged the PDA (Partido Democrático de Angola) to join in a united front with the UPA, creating the FNLA  (Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola) and when these parties formed the GRAE (Govêrno Revolucionário de Angola no Exílio) on April 3, 1962, Savimbi became Foreign Minister of this organization.

==Military career==
Savimbi sought a leadership position in the MPLA by joining the [[Youth of MPLA|MPLA Youth]] in the early 1960s.<ref name="Savimbiobituary">((cite news|title = Obituary: Jonas Savimbi|url = https://www.theguardian.com/news/2002/feb/25/guardianobituaries.victoriabrittain|first = Victoria|last = Brittain|work = [[The Guardian]]|date = 25 February 2002|access-date = 11 December 2012|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131208062910/http://www.theguardian.com/news/2002/feb/25/guardianobituaries.victoriabrittain|archive-date = 8 December 2013|df = dmy-all))</ref> He was rebuffed by the MPLA, and joined forces with the [[National Liberation Front of Angola]] (FNLA) in 1964. The same year, he conceived UNITA with [[Antonio da Costa Fernandes]]. Savimbi went to China for help and was promised arms and military training. Upon returning to Angola in 1966, he launched UNITA and began his career as an anti-Portuguese guerrilla fighter. He also fought the FNLA and MPLA, as the three resistance movements tried to position themselves to lead a post-colonial Angola. Portugal later released [[PIDE]] (Polícia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado, a Portuguese security agency) archives revealing that Savimbi had signed a collaboration pact with Portuguese colonial authorities to fight the MPLA.<ref>((cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3821/is_200610/ai_n17195875 |work=Journal of Third World Studies |title=Contested Power in Angola: 1840s to the Present |year=2006 |first=David |last=Jervis |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527223006/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3821/is_200610/ai_n17195875 |archive-date=27 May 2008 ))</ref><ref>((cite news| url= https://www.theguardian.com/Archive/Article/0,4273,4362364,00.html | work= The Guardian | location=London | title=Jonas Savimbi | first=Victoria | last=Brittain | date =25 February 2002 | access-date=7 May 2010))</ref>

Following Angola's independence in 1975, Savimbi gradually drew the attention of powerful [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] and, ultimately, [[United States|American]] policymakers and intellectuals. Trained in China during the 1960s, Savimbi was a highly successful [[guerrilla]] fighter schooled in classic [[Maoist]] approaches to warfare, including baiting his enemies with multiple military fronts, some of which attacked and some of which consciously retreated. Like the [[People's Liberation Army]] of [[Mao Zedong]], Savimbi mobilized important, although ethnically confined segments of the rural peasantry – overwhelmingly [[Ovimbundu]] – as part of his military tactics. From a military strategy standpoint, he can be considered((by whom|date=August 2018)) one of the most effective guerrilla leaders of the 20th century.<ref>((citation |last=Malaquias |first=Assis |title=Rebels and Robbers: Violence in Post-Colonial Angola |url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn%3Anbn%3Ase%3Anai%3Adiva-501 |year=2007 |place=Uppsala |publisher=Nordiska Afrikainstitutet)).</ref>

===Civil war===
As the MPLA was supported by the [[Soviet bloc]] since 1974, and declared itself [[Marxist-Leninist]] in 1977, Savimbi renounced his earlier Maoist leanings and contacts with China, presenting himself on the international scene as a protagonist of [[anti-communism]]. The war between the MPLA and UNITA, whatever its internal reasons and dynamics, thus became part of the Cold War, with both [[Moscow]] and Washington viewing the conflict as important to the global balance of power.<ref name=Abramoff>((cite web | last = Verini|first=James | date = 17 August 2005 | url = http://dir.salon.com/story/ent/feature/2005/08/17/abramoff/ | title = The tale of 'Red Scorpion' | newspaper = Salon | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080222194803/http://dir.salon.com/story/ent/feature/2005/08/17/abramoff/ | archive-date = 22 February 2008 | df = dmy-all )).</ref>

====United States support====
[[File:Ronald Reagan and Jonas Savimbi.jpg|thumb|right|Savimbi with [[President of the United States|President]] [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1986]]
[[File:Bush Contact Sheet P16285 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Savimbi greeting [[President of the United States|President]] [[George H. W. Bush]] in 1990]]
In 1985, with the backing of the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] administration and through the lobbying efforts of [[Paul Manafort]] and his firm [[Black, Manafort, Stone and Kelly]] which was paid $600,000 each year from Savimbi beginning in 1985,<ref>((cite news |last1=Swan |first1=Betsy |last2=Mak |first2=Tim |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/top-trump-aide-led-the-torturers-lobby |title=Top Trump Aide Led the 'Torturers' Lobby' Bloody Money: Paul Manafort and the partners at his firm made a fortune repping some of the most despicable dictators of the 20th century. |work=[[Daily Beast]] |date=April 13, 2016 |access-date=August 28, 2021 |quote=Updated on 6 November 2017.))</ref><ref>((cite magazine |last=Thomas |first=Evan |author-link=Evan Thomas |url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,960803-1,00.html |title=The Slickest Shop in Town |page =1 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=March 3, 1986 |access-date=August 28, 2021 |archive-date=April 18, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160418033553/http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,960803-1,00.html))</ref><ref>((cite magazine |last=Thomas |first=Evan |author-link=Evan Thomas |url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,960803-2,00.html |title=The Slickest Shop in Town |page =2 |magazine=Time |date=March 3, 1986 |access-date=August 28, 2021 |archive-date=February 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180226060300/http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,960803-2,00.html))</ref><ref>((cite news |last1=Shear |first1=Michael D. |last2=Birnbaum |first2=Jeffrey H. |author1-link=Michael D. Shear |author2-link=Jeffrey Birnbaum |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/05/21/AR2008052103006.html |title=McCain Adviser's Work As Lobbyist Criticized: Charles Black, John McCain's top political strategist, is now retired from a 30-year |page= 1 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=May 22, 2008 |access-date=August 28, 2021 |archive-date=March 9, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309131432/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/05/21/AR2008052103006.html))</ref><ref>((cite news |last1=Shear |first1=Michael D. |last2=Birnbaum |first2=Jeffrey H. |author1-link=Michael D. Shear |author2-link=Jeffrey Birnbaum |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/05/21/AR2008052103006_2.html |title=McCain Adviser's Work As Lobbyist Criticized: Charles Black, John McCain's top political strategist, is now retired from a 30-year |page =2|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=May 22, 2008 |access-date=August 28, 2021 |archive-date=April 16, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416161838/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/05/21/AR2008052103006_2.html))</ref><ref>((cite news |last=Levine |first=Art |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qnVC8yS4N_AC&pg=PA62 |title=Inside Washington's Propaganda Shops: Publicists of the Damned |work=[[Spy (magazine)|Spy]] (volume 6) |pages=52–60 |date=February 1992 |access-date=August 28, 2021)) See page 60. The full title of the article is "Believe it or not, there are Americans out there who have nice things to say about Saddam Hussein, Nicolae Ceaucescu, and the murderous governments of Zaire, Myanmar, and El Salvador – and they have better access to your congressman than you do. They're lobbyists, and they earn hundreds of thousands of dollars flacking for fascists and schmoozing on behalf of tyrants blithely waltzing through life as Publicists of the Dammed."</ref> [[Jack Abramoff]] and other U.S. conservatives organized the [[Democratic International]] in Savimbi's base in [[Jamba, Cuando Cubango|Jamba]], in [[Cuando Cubango Province]] in southeastern Angola.<ref name = Abramoff /> Savimbi was strongly supported by the influential, conservative [[The Heritage Foundation|Heritage Foundation]]. Heritage foreign policy analyst [[Michael Johns (policy analyst)|Michael Johns]] and other conservatives visited regularly with Savimbi in his clandestine camps in Jamba and provided the rebel leader with ongoing political and military guidance in his war against the Angolan government.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=fyzsTGPTkOIC&dq=%22Michael+Johns%22+Savimbi&pg=PA53 ''The Coors Connection: How Coors Family Philanthropy Undermines Democratic Pluralism''], ((webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180221092306/https://books.google.com/books?id=fyzsTGPTkOIC&pg=PA53&lpg=PA53&dq=%22Michael+Johns%22+Savimbi&source=bl&ots=KlSwhsbw-l&sig=O7689UUb32B2dHrlD48O5JfhPsI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjP7vOvzYrOAhXLGR4KHT8gD7U4ChDoAQgbMAA |date=21 February 2018)) by Russ Bellant, South End Press, 1988 and 1991, pp. 53–54.</ref><ref>[http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/1990/07/with-freedom-near-in-angola-this-is-no-time-to-curtail-unita-assistance "With Freedom Near in Angola, This is No Time to Curtail UNITA Assistance,"] ((webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919224609/http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/1990/07/with-freedom-near-in-angola-this-is-no-time-to-curtail-unita-assistance |date=19 September 2016)) by Michael Johns, The Heritage Foundation, 31 July 1990.</ref>

Savimbi's U.S.-based supporters ultimately proved successful in convincing the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] to channel covert weapons and recruit guerrillas for Savimbi's war against Angola's Marxist government. During a visit to [[Washington, D.C.]] in 1986, Reagan invited Savimbi to meet with him at the [[White House]]. Following the meeting, Reagan spoke of UNITA winning "a victory that electrifies the world."<ref name=Heritage>((citation|url=http://www.heritage.org/Research/Africa/HL217.cfm |title=The Coming Winds of Democracy in Angola |publisher=Heritage |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080101103015/http://www.heritage.org/Research/Africa/HL217.cfm |archive-date=1 January 2008 )).</ref>

Two years later, with the Angolan Civil War intensifying, Savimbi returned to Washington, where he praised the Heritage Foundation's work on UNITA's behalf.<ref name = Heritage />

====Military and political efforts====
[[File:Savimbiparleur1.jpg|thumb|upright|Savimbi meets two [[Members of the European Parliament]] in 1989]]
Complementing his military skills, Savimbi also impressed many with his intellectual qualities. He spoke seven languages fluently including Portuguese, French, and English.<ref name="fpif.org">((citation | url = http://fpif.org/jonas_savimbi_washingtons_freedom_fighter_africas_terrorist/ | title = Jonas Savimbi: Washingtons Freedom Fighter", Africa's "Terrorist" | publisher = Foreign Policy in Focus | author = Shana Wills | date = 1 February 2002))</ref> In visits to foreign diplomats and in speeches before American audiences, he often cited classical Western political and social philosophy, ultimately becoming one of the most vocal anti-communists of the [[Third World]].<ref name="allafrica.com">((citation | url = http://allafrica.com/stories/200206250743.html?page=4 | title = Angola: Don't Simplify History, Says Savimbi's Biographer | newspaper = All Africa | location = [[Johannesburg]] | date = 22 June 2002 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070608090026/http://allafrica.com/stories/200206250743.html?page=4 | archive-date = 8 June 2007 | df = dmy-all )).</ref>

Savimbi's biography describes him as "an incredible linguist. He spoke four European languages, including English although he had never lived in an English-speaking country. He was extremely well read. He was an extremely fine conversationalist and a very good listener."<ref name="allafrica.com"/> Savimbi also accused his political opponents of witchcraft.<ref name="Economist"/> These contrasting images of Savimbi would play out throughout his life, with his enemies calling him a power-hungry warmonger, and his American and other allies calling him a critical figure in the West's bid to win the Cold War.

As U.S. support began to flow liberally and leading U.S. conservatives championed his cause, Savimbi won major strategic advantages in the late 1980s, and again in the early 1990s, after having taken part unsuccessfully in the [[1992 Angolan general election|general elections of 1992]]. As a consequence, Moscow and [[Havana]] began to reevaluate their engagement in Angola, as Soviet and [[Cubans|Cuban]] fatalities mounted and Savimbi's ground control increased.<ref name=NYT>((citation | url = https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE1DE123BF932A1575BC0A96F948260 | title = Angola says rebels are launching new attacks, jeopardizing accord | newspaper = The New York Times | date = 21 August 1989)).</ref>

By 1989, UNITA held total control of several limited areas, but was able to develop significant guerrilla operations everywhere in Angola, with the exception of the coastal cities and [[Namibe Province]]. At the height of his military success, in 1989 and 1990, Savimbi was beginning to launch attacks on government and military targets in and around the country's capital, [[Luanda]]. Observers felt that the strategic balance in Angola had shifted and that Savimbi was positioning UNITA for a possible military victory.<ref name = NYT />

Signaling the concern that the Soviet Union was placing on Savimbi's advance in Angola, Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] raised the Angolan war with Reagan during numerous U.S.-Soviet summits. In addition to meeting with Reagan, Savimbi also met with Reagan's successor, [[George H. W. Bush]], who promised Savimbi "all appropriate and effective assistance."<ref>((citation | url = https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE5DC103EF931A25752C0A96F948260 | title = Bush pledges Angola rebel aid | newspaper = The New York Times | date = January 1989))</ref>

===1990s===
[[File:Jamba Political Billboard Dec 1995.jpg|thumb|right|Billboard showing Savimbi in [[Jamba, Cuando Cubango]], UNITA's headquarters in southeastern Angola.|350px]] In January 1990 and again in February 1990, Savimbi was wounded in armed conflict with Angolan government troops. The injuries did not prevent him from again returning to Washington, where he met with his American supporters and President Bush in an effort to further increase US military assistance to UNITA.<ref name= savwound>Alao (1994). p. xx.</ref> Savimbi's supporters warned that continued Soviet support for the MPLA was threatening broader global collaboration between Gorbachev and the US.<ref>((citation | url = http://www.heritage.org/dataconvert/pdf/em0259.pdf | title = Angola: Testing Gorbachev's 'New Thinking' | publisher = The Heritage Foundation | type = executive memorandum | number = 259 | first = Michael | last = Johns | date = 5 February 1990 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081219113759/http://www.heritage.org/dataconvert/pdf/em0259.pdf | archive-date = 19 December 2008 )).</ref>

In February 1992, Antonio da Costa Fernandes and Nzau Puna defected from UNITA, declaring publicly that Savimbi was not interested in a political test, but on preparing another war.<ref name="Savimbiobituary" /> Under military pressure from UNITA, the Angolan government negotiated a cease-fire with Savimbi, and Savimbi ran for president in the national elections of 1992. Foreign monitors claimed the election to be fair. But because neither Savimbi (40 percent) nor Angolan President [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] (49%) obtained the 50 percent necessary to prevail, a run-off election was scheduled.<ref>((Citation | url = https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE3DA1539F935A25753C1A964958260&n=Top/Reference/Times%20Topics/People/S/Savimbi,%20Jonas | title = Runoff Now Expected in Angola as Leader Falls Short | newspaper = The New York Times | date = 16 October 1992)).</ref>

In late October 1992, Savimbi dispatched UNITA Vice President [[Jeremias Chitunda]] and UNITA senior advisor [[Elias Salupeto Pena]] to Luanda to negotiate the details of the run-off election. On 2 November 1992 in Luanda, Chitunda and Pena's convoy was attacked by government forces and they were both pulled from their car and shot dead. Their bodies were taken by government authorities and never seen again.<ref>((citation | url = https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE4DA1630F937A35752C1A964958260 | title = Rebels in Angola suffer a setback | newspaper = The New York Times | date = 4 November 1992)).</ref> The MPLA offensive against UNITA and the FNLA has come to be known as the [[Halloween Massacre (Angola)|Halloween Massacre]] where over 10,000 of their voters were massacred nationwide by MPLA forces.<ref name = Multiple1992>((citation | publisher = National Society for Human Rights | title = Ending the Angolan Conflict | place = Windhoek, Namibia | date = 3 July 2000)) (opposition parties, massacres).</ref><ref>((citation | first = John | last = Matthew | title = Letters | newspaper = The Times | place = UK | date = 6 November 1992 | type = election observer)).</ref><ref>((citation | publisher = NSHR | type = press release | date = 12 September 2000| title = MPLA atrocities))</ref><ref>((citation | publisher = NSHR | type = press release | date = 16 May 2001 | title = MPLA atrocities))</ref> Alleging governmental electoral fraud and questioning the government's commitment to peace, Savimbi withdrew from the run-off election and resumed fighting, mostly with foreign funds. UNITA again quickly advanced militarily, encircling the nation's capital of [[Luanda]].<ref>((citation | url = https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE5D9133CF937A15753C1A964958260 | title = Luanda is encircled by former guerrillas | newspaper = The New York Times | date = 24 October 1992)).</ref>

In 1994, UNITA signed a new peace accord. Savimbi declined the vice-presidency that was offered to him and again renewed fighting in 1998. Savimbi also reportedly purged those within UNITA whom he saw as threats to his leadership or as questioning his strategic course. According to [[Fred Bridgland]], Savimbi's foreign secretary [[Tito Chingunji]] and much of his family, possibly numbering more than 60, were murdered in 1991 after Savimbi suspected that Chingunji had been in secret, unapproved negotiations with the Angolan government during Chingunji's various diplomatic assignments in Europe and the United States. Savimbi denied his involvement in the Chingunji killing and blamed it on UNITA dissidents.<ref name="allafrica.com" /> According to Bridgland in his book ''The War for Africa: Twelve Months that Transformed a Continent'', in an earlier incident termed 'Red September', Savimbi oversaw the torture and killing of dozens of people, including many of his own officers, their wives and children, in a witchcraft ritual. Bridgland also stated that Aurora Katalayo (widow of UNITA leader Mateus Katalaoy, whom Savimbi had allegedly killed a few years earlier) and her four-year old son were burned alive, accused of witchcraft.<ref> ((cite book |last=Bridgland |first=Fred |title=The War For Africa: Twelve Months That Transformed A Continent |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/5152671-the-war-for-africa))</ref>

==Death==
After surviving more than six assassination attempts, and having been reported dead at least 17 times, Savimbi was killed on 22 February 2002, in a battle with Angolan government troops along riverbanks in the province of [[Moxico (province)|Moxico]], his birthplace.<ref name="Economist">((cite news |title=Jonas Savimbi |type=obituary |url=http://www.economist.com/node/1010682 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=28 February 2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140809223508/http://www.economist.com/node/1010682 |archive-date=9 August 2014))</ref> In the firefight, Savimbi sustained 15 gunshot wounds to his head, throat, upper body and legs. While Savimbi returned fire, his wounds proved fatal; he died almost instantly.<ref>((cite news |title=Savimbi 'died with gun in hand' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1839252.stm |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=25 February 2002 |access-date=8 June 2019))</ref>

Savimbi's somewhat mystical reputation for eluding the Angolan military and their Soviet and Cuban military advisors led many Angolans to question the validity of reports of his 2002 death in combat until pictures of his bloodied and bullet-riddled body appeared on Angolan state television, and the [[United States Department of State|United States State Department]] subsequently confirmed it. He was interred in Luena Main Cemetery in [[Luena, Moxico Province]]. On 3 January 2008, his tomb was vandalised and four members of the youth wing of the MPLA were charged and arrested.<ref>((cite news |url=http://www.mg.co.za/article/2008-01-23-jonas-savimbis-tomb-vandalised-says-unita |title=Jonas Savimbi's tomb vandalised, says UNITA |newspaper=[[Mail and Guardian]] |date=23 January 2008 |first=Roja |last=Cawaia |access-date=8 June 2019))</ref> His body was exhumed and reburied publicly in 2019.<ref>((cite news |title=Jonas Savimbi: Angola's former Unita leader reburied after 17 years |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-48483246 |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=1 June 2019 |access-date=8 June 2019))</ref>

===Legacy===
Savimbi was succeeded by [[António Dembo]], who assumed UNITA's leadership on an interim basis in February 2002. But Dembo had sustained wounds in the same attack that killed Savimbi, and he died from them ten days later and was succeeded by [[Paulo Lukamba Gato]]. Six weeks after Savimbi's death, a ceasefire between UNITA and the MPLA was signed, but Angola remains deeply divided politically between MPLA and UNITA supporters. A [[2008 Angolan legislative election|parliamentary election in September 2008]] resulted in an overwhelming majority for the MPLA, but its legitimacy was questioned by international observers.<ref>((cite web|date=13 August 2008|title=Angola: Doubts Over Free and Fair Elections|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2008/08/13/angola-doubts-over-free-and-fair-elections|website=Human Rights Watch))</ref>

In the years since Savimbi's death, his legacy has been a source of debate. "The mistake that Savimbi made, the historical, big mistake he made, was to reject (the election) and go back to war", Alex Vines, head of the Africa program at London-based [[Chatham House]] research institute said in February 2012.<ref name="rnw.nl">((cite news |url=http://www.rnw.nl/africa/bulletin/angolas-savimbi-still-haunts-10-years |title=Angola's Savimbi still haunts 10 years on |work=[[Radio Netherlands Worldwide]] |date=21 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223190538/http://www.rnw.nl/africa/bulletin/angolas-savimbi-still-haunts-10-years |archive-date=23 February 2012 |access-date=8 June 2019))</ref> Africa expert Paula Roque, of the [[University of Oxford]], says Savimbi was "a very charismatic man, a man who exuded power and leadership. We can't forget that for a large segment of the population, UNITA represented something."<ref name="rnw.nl" />

He was survived by "several wives and dozens of children",<ref name="Economist"/> the latter numbering at least 25.

==In popular culture==
Savimbi is a minor character in ''[[Call of Duty: Black Ops II]]'', a video game that was released in 2012. Savimbi is voiced by [[Robert Wisdom]].<ref>((cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/gaming/2012/11/13/call-of-duty-black-ops-ii-review/1700649/ |title=Review: 'Black Ops II' Stays on High Ground |newspaper=[[USA Today]] |date=13 November 2012 |first=Mike |last=Snider |access-date=8 June 2019 |publisher=[[Gannett]]))</ref> Three of Savimbi’s children took issue with Savimbi's representation in the game, claiming that he was portrayed as a "big halfwit who wanted to kill everybody".<ref>((Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/jan/14/call-of-duty-publisher-sued-by-family-of-angolan-rebel/ |title=Call of Duty publisher sued by family of Angolan rebel |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=14 January 2016 |first=Keith |last=Stuart |access-date=8 June 2019 |publisher=[[Guardian News & Media Limited]]))</ref> However, [[Activision]], the publishers of ''Black Ops II'', argued that the game portrayed him as a "political leader and strategist".<ref>((cite news |title=Angolan rebel Savimbi's family sues Call of Duty makers |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-35486651 |work=[[BBC News]] |publisher=[[BBC]] |access-date=3 February 2016 |date=3 February 2016))</ref> The lawsuit was rejected by a French court.<ref>((cite news |title=Angolan rebel Jonas Savimbi's family lose Call of Duty case |work=[[BBC News]] |date=24 March 2016 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-35894116 |access-date=8 June 2019 |publisher=[[BBC]]))</ref>

==See also==
*[[Kimberley Process Certification Scheme]]

==Notes and references==
((Notelist))

===References===
((Reflist |30em))

===Bibliography===
* ((Citation|last=Bridgland|first=Fred | year=1988 | title = Jonas Savimbi: A Key to Africa | publisher = Hodder & Stoughton | url = https://archive.org/details/savimbiakeytoafrica | isbn = 0-340-42218-1))
* ((Citation | last = Chilcote | first = Ronald H | title = Emerging nationalism in Portuguese Africa | place = Stanford, CA | publisher = Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University | year = 1972 | isbn = 0-8179-1971-6))
* Heywood, Linda M. "Unita and Ethnic Nationalism in Angola." ''Journal of Modern African Studies'' 27.1 (1989): 47–66.
* ((Citation | last = Houser | first = George M. | title = No One Can Stop The Rain: Glimpses of Africa's Liberation Struggle | place = New York | publisher = The Pilgrim Press | year = 1989 | isbn = 0-8298-0795-0 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/noonecanstoprain00hous ))
* ((Citation | language = fr| last =  Loiseau| first = Yves  |  title =  Portrait d'un Révolutionaire en Général: Jonas Savimbi | place =  Paris | publisher =  La Table Ronde | year =  1987 | isbn = 2-7103-0330-2))
* ((Citation | language = fr |trans-title=The Churches and the last war in Angola: the difficult paths of engagement for a fair peace | first = Christine | last = Messiant |author-link=Christine Messiant| title = Les Églises et la dernière guerre en Angola. Les voies difficiles de l'engagement pour une paix juste | publisher = LFM | journal = Social Sciences & Missions | number = 13 | date = Oct 2003 | pages = 75–117)).
* Neto, Pedro Figueiredo. "The Consolidation of the Angola–Zambia Border: Violence, Forced Displacement, Smugglers and Savimbi." ''Journal of Borderlands Studies'' 32.3 (2017): 305–324.
* ((Citation | last = Paget | first = Karen| title = Patriotic Betrayal: The Inside Story of the CIA's Secret Campaign to Enroll American Students in the Crusade Against Communism | place = New Haven and London | publisher = Yale University Press| year = 2015| isbn = 978-0-300-20508-4))
* ((Citation | last = Siler | first = Michael J | title = Strategic Security Issues in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Comprehensive Annotated Bibliography | year = 2004 | page = 311)).
* Tvedten, Inge. "US Policy towards Angola since 1975." ''Journal of Modern African Studies'' 30.1 (1992): 31–52.
* Windrich, Elaine. ''Cold War Guerrilla: Jonas Savimbi, the U.S. Media & the Angolan War'' (1992) 183 pp.

==External links==
((Commons category|Jonas Savimbi))
*[http://www.blackpast.org/?q=gah/savimbi-jonas-malheiro-1934-2002 Biographical Entry] at ''[[BlackPast.org]]''
*[http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1988/063088a.htm "White House Statement on the President's Meeting with Jonas Savimbi"] ((Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306235135/http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1988/063088a.htm |date=6 March 2016 )), 30 June 1988.
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1846238.stm "Angola Rebels Demand Death Probe"], [[BBC News]], 28 February 2002.

;Speeches and essays
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080101103015/http://www.heritage.org/Research/Africa/HL217.cfm "The Coming Winds of Democracy in Angola"], Jonas Savimbi speech to [[The Heritage Foundation]], 5 October 1989
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20121007142315/http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/1986/policy-review-35 Policy Review vol. 35], contains Savimbi's 1986 essay "The War Against Soviet Colonialism".

;Video
*((C-SPAN|2169))
*[http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x4cpfb_savimbi_politics French interview of Jonas Savimbi, 1978].
*((YouTube|zqcNdVc2bJw|Jonas Savimbi speaks in Angolan capital of Luanda, 1991)).

((1992 candidates, Angola))

((Authority control))

((DEFAULTSORT:Savimbi, Jonas))
[[Category:1934 births]]
[[Category:2002 deaths]]

[[Category:20th century in Angola]]
[[Category:20th-century Angolan people]]
[[Category:21st-century Angolan politicians]]
[[Category:2000s assassinated politicians in Africa]]
[[Category:Angolan anti-communists]]
[[Category:Angolan independence activists]]
[[Category:Angolan politicians]]
[[Category:Angolan Protestants]]
[[Category:Angolan rebels]]
[[Category:Angolan revolutionaries]]
[[Category:Angolan warlords]]
[[Category:Assassinated Angolan politicians]]
[[Category:Assassinated politicians in 2002]]
[[Category:Assassinated revolutionaries]]
[[Category:Blood diamonds]]
[[Category:Candidates for President of Angola]]
[[Category:Deaths by firearm in Angola]]
[[Category:Former Marxists]]
[[Category:Guerrilla warfare theorists]]
[[Category:Guerrillas killed in action]]
[[Category:Members of UNITA]]
[[Category:People from Bié Province]]
[[Category:People from Portuguese Angola]]
[[Category:UNITA politicians]]
[[Category:University of Lausanne alumni]]

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