Sanskrit (widely used in administration, court and government in the first half of the 14th century) Persian (widely used in administration, court and government from 14th century onwards) Kashmiri (native language, given official status later on) Dardic Arabic
The Kashmir Sultanate (Kashmiri: مملکتِ کشمیرMamlekat-e-Kashmīr, Persian: سلطنتِ کشمیر; Saltanat-e-Kashmīr) or historically Latinized as Sultanate of Cashmere, was a medievalIndo-Islamic kingdom established in the early 14th century in Northern India, primarily in the Kashmir Valley. The sultanate was founded by Rinchan Shah, a Ladakhi noble who converted from Buddhism to Islam. The sultanate was briefly interrupted by the Loharas until Shah Mir, a councillor of Rinchan, overthrew the Loharas and started his own dynasty. The Shah Mirs ruled from 1339 until they were deposed by the Chak warlords and nobles in 1561. The Chaks continued to rule the sultanate until the Mughal conquest in 1586 and their surrender in 1589.
The Kashmir Sultanate was a Muslim monarchy with Kashmiri, Turco-Persian, Kohistani, Dardic, and Ladakhi elites. A Ladakhi Muslim, Rinchan Shah, served as the first Sultan and was followed by the two prominent dynasties, Shah Mir and Chak dynasty. A Baihaqi Sayyid, Mubarak Baihaqi, briefly ruled the Sultanate after overthrowing Yousuf Chak in 1579. Due to the diversity, the kingdom worked on the principles of Kashmiriyat, containing and existing between the proximites of the cultural and religious pluralism. Even though Sanskrit and Persian were favoured upon as the official, diplomatic, court, and state language, Kashmiri still had a large impact on the social and communal work and was later granted official status. The economical center as well as the vital mint city of the sultanate, Srinagar, served as the capital for the majority of its lifespan while the diverse city of Varmul, the highly rich and cultivated land of Suyyapur, the hilly areas of Anantnag and the surrounding valleys of Neelum were the notable commercial and residential districts. The sultanate carried out major trading relations, having establishments in Bihar, Tibet, Nepal, Peking, Bhutan, Khurasan, and Turkestan whereas Punjab and Bengal were considered her greatest trading and industrial partners. Besides Delhi Sultanate, Kashmir, along with Bengal, Gujarat, and Sindh, were considered strong political and martial allies, even interfering in one another's internal problems.
During the sultanate era, the valley was influenced by various orders of Sufism and mysticism. The Suhrawardiyya, Kubrawiya, Rishi, and Nurbakhshiya orders were formally adopted and regulated by the Sultans in their reign. A form of peace culture evolved around the Kashmiri Pandits and Muslims in the leadership and teachings of Lal Ded, Nund Rishi, Habba Khatun, Yaqub Ganai and, Habibullah Ganai. With the beginning of the Muslim epoch, Indo-Islamic architecture was observed along with the Kashmiri architecture evolving into the Islamic Kashmiri style of infrastructure and designing. This style can still be seen in the old muhallahs of Srinagar.
History
Background (13th and 14th centuries)
Numerous attempts had been made to conquer Kashmir first by the Arabs in the 7th and 8th century and then by the Turks in the 11th century[4] but it was not until the reigns of Mahmud of Ghazni and Muhammad of Ghor that Kashmir looked out to serious threats of invasion.[5][6] It was at this time that Turkic and Tajik traders entered Kashmir and were allowed to serve in the Lohara army.[7] With the Hindu emperors weakened, Kashmir became a subject to the Mongol invasions in the 13th century.[8] Unable to fend off the invasions this time, Kashmir became a Mongol dependency some time after 1235.[9] In 1320, a Mongol commander, Zulju, with an army of Qara'unas, entered Kashmir and, after all types of atrocities and violence,[10][8] left the valley with the loot. As Emperor Suhadeva fled to Kishtwar, the valley passed on to the hands of local chiefs who asserted independence.[11][12] The most prominent of them were Ramacandra, the commander-in-chief of Suhadeva, and Rinchan Bhoti, a LadakhiBuddhist noble, who left Ladakh after his father, a Ladakhi chief, was killed by the Baltis.[13] Rinchan, who founded no one more powerful than him after he had killed Ramacandra in a surprise attack, ascended the throne as Rinchan Shah.[14]
The first challenge faced by Rinchan was to gain the trust of the public and of the nobles.[15] For that, he released Ramacandra's son, Rawancandra, and his family and granted him the title of Raina (Lord) with some jagirs. He also appointed him his Mir Bakhshi (Commander-in-Chief) and married his sister, Kota Rani, who had previously been the Empress consort of Suhadeva.[16][17] After suppressing this provocation, Rinchan faced Suhadeva, who had returned to the valley after Zulju's departure. He tried to subdue the people against Rinchan but was repulsed as the people still remembered his betrayal.[18][19] Soon after these events, the Lavanyas, a feudal tribe, challenged Rinchan but were defeated and forced to acknowledge him.[20]
The Emperor always had a council of cultured men and artisans in his court along with Muslim scholars and Hindu and Buddhist priests.[21] With an elusive yet sharp mind, Rinchan later in the same year in the hands of Bulbul Shah and adopted the title of Sultan Sadr'ud-Din, becoming the first Sultan of Kashmir.[22][23] Rawancandra also accepted Islam and became a close associate of the Sultan.[24]Shah Mir, a Kohistani Dard with partial Persian ancestry from Swat who settled in Kashmir in 1313 with his family, also entered the government of the Sultan and was a trusted councillor of the Sultan.[25] He even appointed him as the tutor of his son Haidar.[26][27] Sultan Sadr'ud-Din faced a surprise attack by Tukka, his former Vizier, and his followers. The preparators left a serious wound on the Sultan's head in between the struggle[28] but was rescued by his Vizier, Vyalaraja. The Sultan took the enemies by surprise and executed them. He also ripped open the wombs of their wives by the sword.[29]
Unluckily, the wound on the Sultan's head proved fatal, and he died in 1323.[28] He was buried near the Mosque he had built in Srinagar. After the Sultan's demise, Udayanadeva, the brother of Suhadeva, was called back from Swat to claim the throne on the orders of Kota Rani and the consent of Shah Mir and other nobles as Haidar was still a minor.[30][25]
Early Years (14th Century)
The rule of Udayanadeva lasted until his death in 1338 and was succeeded by his wife Kota Rani.[31][32] Shah Mir, in the meantime, strengthened his position in the cabinet of Udayanadeva.[33][25] Kota Rani appointed Bhatta Bhikshana, a powerful minister, as her Prime Minister, ignoring Shah Mir. She also moved her capital to Andarkot as Srinagar was, at that time, Shah Mir's stronghold.[34][35] This angered Shah Mir, who, at once, marched against her. At the outset of the war, he assassinated Bhikshana through a conspiracy and threatened Kota Rani to surrender and marry him.[36] Kota Rani, after seeing her troops and chiefs deserting her, reluctantly agreed. Shah Mir, at first, married her but, seeing the support she had in the kingdom, threw her and her children in prison while he himself ascended the throne as Sultan Shamsu'd-Din Shah.[37][38]
With the behest of the new rule, a new era, namely, the Kashmiri era, replaced the old Laukika era established by the Hindu Emperors.[39] Shamsu'd-Din set up Islamic roots in the early stages of the Sultanate,[33][40] appointing Muslim converts from Chak and Magre clan to major posts in the government.[41] After his death in 1342, the Sultanate passed on to Shamsu'd-Din's sons, Jamshid and Ali Sher.[42][43]
Jamshed, being the eldest, ascended the throne in 1342 and adopted the title of Sultan Jamshed Shah.[44] Jamshed worked on the state affairs and infrastructure, constructing various towns and villages and helping the people who were displaced in the Zulju invasion.[45][46] Meanwhile, Ali Sher, in 1343, after a failed attempt, usurped the throne and declared himself as Sultan as Jamshed was absent in Kamraj.[44] Ali Sher took on the title of Sultan Alau'd-Din Shah. Alau'd-Din was a just and an able ruler, bringing back the peasants who left Kashmir after the Zulju invasion and giving them shelter and bread.[47] He promulgated the first social and moral laws of the Sultanate, which helped not only the widows but the orphans as well.[47] He also defeated the Lavanyas, who rose back to prominence and reclaimed their land. After a reign of eleven years, Alau'd Din died in 1354 and was buried in his new town Alau'd-Dinpur.[48]
Expansion (14th and 15th centuries)
As a broad minded intellectual, Shihab'ud-Din, in the first half of his tenure, took care of the Sultanate and brought stability to the social and integral structure of Kashmir.[49] Full of animation and efficiency, Shihab'ud-Din set out to conquer its neighbour polities to expand and glorify his state. Marching through Baramulla, he first occupied Pakhli and went on to add Swat to his realm.[50] Next, he invaded the Khokhar dominated Pothohar, which extended from Attock to Sialkot. His commander-in-chief (Mir Bakhshi), Malik Candra, on the other hand, subdued Jammu, Kishtwar, Chamba, and other hill states.[51] Occupying all the bordering states in the south, Shihab'ud-Din went on to defeat the Dardic forces of Gilgit and the hill states of the north. Baltistan under the Maqpons and Ladakh under the Maryuls were, at that time, tributary states of Moghulistan and Tibet, respectively.[51] Shihab'ud-Din, along with Malik Candra, faced the Baltis and Kashgaris, defeating them easily and soundly.[51] He then moved towards Ladakh, beating the joint forces of Ladakhis and Tibetis.[51] After all these conquests, Shihab'ud-Din returned to Srinagar around 1370 and rather ought to live the rest of his life peacefully but just after some years, in 1373, he died due to a viral illness.[52]
Shihab'ud-Din's brother, Hindal, ascended the throne in 1373 as Sultan Qutbu'd-Din Shah.[53] Qutbu'd-Din defended his boundaries and lived most of his life as a "poet or a patron of learning."[53][54]Sayyid Ali Hamadani visited Kashmir in 1379 and was courteously welcomed by him. Hamadani stayed in Kashmir for three years, and his Kubrawiya teachings were widely accepted throughout Kashmir as the official order of the government.[55][56] Qutbu'd-Din was an old man when Shingara was born to him, who was, just after his birth, appointed as the heir apparent. Qutbu'd-Din died in 1389, and Shingara succeeded him as Sultan Sikandar Shah.[57]
Many Islamic scholars and preachers visited Kashmir in Sikandar's era, the most prominent one being Sayyid Muhammad Hamadani, the son of Sayyid Ali Hamadani Hamadani stayed in Kashmir for nearly twelve years and proceeded on a pilgrimage to Mecca.[58][59] Sikandar's era is remembered due to his interaction with the Turco-Mongol conqueror, Timur.[60] Sikandar was also involved in iconoclastic activities, sidelining and mistreating the Kashmiri Pandits.[61][62][63] These activities were continued by his son and successor Ali Shah, who, under the influence of his Wazir Saifuddin, forced the Pandits out of the valley. Shahi Khan, younger brother of Ali Shah, served as the Wazir of Ali Shah by defeating Hamsabhatta,[64] but when Ali Shah, in 1418, left for Mecca for a pilgrimage, he gave Shahi Khan the authority. Shahi Khan, seeing the dire situation of the sultanate, revolted and usurped the throne.[65] Ali Shah, with the help of his father-in-law and Raja of Jammu Bhim Dev, defeated Shahi Khan, which led to the start of a civil war between Shahi Khan and Ali Shah.[66] Shahi Khan, with the help and support from Jasrat Khokhar and Jam Tughlaq, turned out victorious and ascended the throne as Sultan Zainu'l-Abidin in 1420.[67]
Major contributions to the development of the sultanate were carried out in the reign of Zainu'l-Abidin.[68] Referred to as "Akbar of Kashmir" by modern authors, Zainu'l-Abidin espoused secular motives, calling back Pandits who left the valley in the reign of his father and brother.[69] Temples, which were in a critical state, were repaired and restored.[70] Relations with foreign countries were improved with Bengal, Gujarat, Sindh, and Punjab, forming a mutual alliance with Kashmir.[71] Trade and agriculture were enhanced, education was encouraged, and religious harmony was established between the two communities (Muslims and Pandits),[72][73][74][69] which was later known as Kashmiriyat. Zainu'l-Abidin was followed by a weak line of succession who were rather involved in their personal interests than the needs of the sultanate.[75]
Decline and Annexation (15th and 16th centuries)
After the reign of Haidar Shah (1470–1472) and Hasan Shah (1472–1484), the two sons of Zainu'l-Abidin, a power struggle started between Fath Shah and Muhammad Shah.[76][77] One of the two factions, at times, was supported by the Mughals while the other was backed by the nobles. Mughal commanders Kuchak Beg and Shaikh Ali Beg led an expedition under Babur to Kashmir in 1527, supporting Sikandar Shah II against Muhammad Shah.[78][79][80] Muhammad Shah, with the help of Lohar Magre and Kaji Chak, defeated the Mughals near Naushahra, whereas Sikandar Shah was blinded and later died in prison.[79] The Mughals again marched onto Kashmir with Kamran Mirza as their commander in 1531. Even though Srinagar was sacked, Kaji Chak along with his army defeated and routed Kamran back to India.[81] Another attempt to annexe Kashmir was carried out, but this time by Sultan Said Khan of Yarkent Khanate. Said Khan dispatched Haidar Dughlat, a Chagatai Turco-Mongol military general, to Kashmir in 1533.[82] Despite early defeats, Kashmiris defeated and repelled Turco-Mongol forces and forced them to sign a peace treaty in the same year.[83]
Dughlat later took the service of Mughal emperor Humayun and attacked Kashmir again in November 1540.[84] Kashmir was formally annexed in December 1540, and coins were issued in the name of Humayun.[85][86] Sultan Nazuk Shah was set up on the throne as a puppet.[87] Kaji Chak and Regi Chak, the only two generals who were fighting the Mughals and also fought in the Battle of Vahator on 13 August 1541, died in 1544 and 1546 respectively.[88] This system was regulated until 1551 when Kashmiris under Nazuk Shah and Daulat Chak hurdled their way through the Mughal defence and killed Dughlat in chaos.[89] The Shah Mirs were greatly weakened in these invasions and were controlled by other families, mainly the Chaks.[90] Habib Shah (1557–1561) was dethroned by Ghazi Shah Chak in 1561 and acquired the title of Muhammad Humayun, thus ending the rule of Shah Mir dynasty.[91][92][93]
Mughals under Akbar were busy subduing southern and eastern India and let the Chaks rule the valley. Akbar, in 1579, set his eyes on Kashmir after seeing the politics of the sultanate divided between Yousuf Chak, Sayyid Mubarak and Lohar Chak.[94] From 1581 till 1585, Akbar tried to force Yousuf to ratify his superiority and pay a visit to his court in Fatehpur Sikri.[95] All these efforts went in vain, and as a last resort, he sent an army of around 5000 under Raja Bhagwant Das in late 1585.[96] Bhagwant Das convinced Yousuf to surrender and sign a treaty with him, which stated that Yousuf would be reinstated as the Sultan while the forces will be withdrawn,[97] but when he was taken to Akbar, he was immediately imprisoned.[98]
Kashmiris chose Yakub Chak, Yousuf's son, as their Sultan in 1586 and continued the struggle.[99] Yakub Chak fled to Kishtwar when the Mughals attacked Kashmir again and was temporarily replaced by Shams Chak, Yousuf's second cousin.[100] In Yakub's absence, the Mughals now under a new commander, Qasim Khan and Kashmiris, under Shams Chak, faced each other in the Battle of Hastivanj.[101] The battle ended in Qasim's favour and the Mughal rule was formally instigated on 14 October 1586 while Shams and the Kashmiris were soundly defeated.[102] This came as a shock to Yakub, who joined forces with Shams and fought the Mughals for three years until both of them surrendered in the year 1589.[103][104]
Government
Majority of the crowning rituals of the sultanate were adopted from the previous Lohara and Utpala kings. The crown was made an exclusive privilege of the Sultan to execute orders and bestow robes of honour on nobles, officials and tributaries.
While Kashmiri monarchy was uniformly laid throughout the valley, Srinagar served as the most important station with the residence of the Sultan and the office of the Central Record Department. Royal forts at Suyyapur and Anantnag also became significant in later years of the sultanate.
Central Government
Even though the Sultan held the highest order of the Sultanate with executive, legislative and judicial powers in his hand, he still formed a central government to run his Sultanate effectively thus forming a council (Shura) of his most trusted ministers and appointed them accordingly.
Wazīr (Prime Minister) was the highest official in the state and was also responsible for the civil administration. He was the constant advisor to the Sultan. The Wazīr was granted excellent and sovereign executive and judicial powers and even led expeditions under the Sultan's orders.
Dīwan-i-Kul (Finance Minister) was a minister of the Sultan's council who held the economical, revenue, and financial powers of the Sultanate.
Mīr Bakhshī or Sipahsālār (Military Commander) was the commander of the military department and led the Sultan's army into foreign invasion or civil wars.
Akhūrbek (Chief Master of the Horse) was an important office granted to an officer of the Royal Stable. He controlled the Royal Stable and was obliged to take care of the Royal Horses.
Qāzī'l-Quzāt or Shaikhu'l-Islām (Minister of Religious and Judicial Affairs) was responsible for the religious harmony between the Muslims and the non-Muslims. As Kashmiriyat prevailed among the Kashmiris at that time, Qāzī'l-Quzāt played an important role in settling quarrels between the Kashmiri Pandits and the Kashmiri Muslims. Qāzī'l-Quzāt was also in charge of the judicial matters on personal and land disputes.
Mīr Ādil (Chief Magistrate) was a local judge appointed only in Srinagar to hear the magisterial cases. The cases which the Mīr Adl couldn't solve were sent to the Qāzī'l-Quzāt.
Khazānchī (Lord Treasurer) functioned as the head of the Sultan's treasury, which includes the capital of taxation and management.
Amīr-i-Kotwāl (Chief Police Officer) was responsible for maintaining law and order in the country and for protecting the citizens from robbers and thieves.
Amīr-i-Muhtasib (Chief Ombudsman) supervised the markets, inspected weights and measures, and looked after the morals of the people.
Dabīr (Head of Department) was the most important rank in a government department. They were directly appointed by the Sultan as head of their respective department.
Amīr-i-Nāyak (Chief Guard) was the guardian of the passes leading into Kashmir. He was responsible for checking and administrating the Nāyaks (Guards) under him.
Provincial Government
The government of Srinagar was directly under the Sultan, while the two provinces, Kamraj and Maraj, were ruled by a Hākim (Governor) appointed directly by the Sultan. The Hākim was allowed to form his own government to maintain law and order, collect revenue, and dispense justice in the province.
Qāzi (State Judge) was the head of the judiciary of the province and was appointed by the centre.
Kotwāl (State Police Officer) was responsible for maintaining law and order in the province.
Muhtasib (State Ombudsman) was in charge of supervising the markets and looked after the morals of the people in the province.
District Government
Both the provinces were divided into different parganas (districts), each led by a Shiqdār (District Officer) who was allowed to form his own government. The district government was an exact replica of the provincial government under which the Qāzi/Muftī (Magistrate), Kotwāl (District Police Officer) and Muhtasib (District Ombudsman) exerted their powers.
Local Government
The pargana itself was further divided into different villages and towns. Each village had a Patwāri (Accountant) who was not only required for accountancy but also to preside over the local government.
Sarhang Zāda (Local Police Officer) was responsible for maintaining law and order in the village. At times, the Sarhang Zāda was appointed in more than one village.
Candalas (Watchmen) were appointed by the Sarhang Zāda who swept the houses in the day and acted as watchmen at night.
Muhtasib (Local Ombudsman) had a duty to oversee the conformity and social behaviour of the residents of the village.
^Nazim, Muhammad (1 January 2015). The Life and Times of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna (Revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 92–3. ISBN978-1-107-45659-4.
^Chādūrah, Ḥaydar Malik (1991). History of Kashmir. Delhi: Bhavna Prakashan. pp. 104a.
^Muhammad Arif Qandhari, active 1577 (1993). Tarikh-i-Akbari. Internet Archive. Delhi : Pragati Publications. p. 425. ISBN978-81-7307-013-6.((cite book)): CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ abDutt, Jogesh Chunder (1 January 2012). Rajatarangini of Jonaraja. New Dehli: Gyan Publishing House. p. 23. ISBN978-81-212-0037-0.
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