Lesser Poland (Polish: Małopolska, Latin: Polonia Minor) is a historical region (dzielnica) of Poland; its capital is the city of Kraków.
It should not be confused with the modern Lesser Poland Voivodeship, which covers only the south-western part of Lesser Poland.[1] Historical Lesser Poland is much bigger than the current voivodeship which bears its name, stretching from Bielsko-Biała in the south-west as far as to Siedlce in the north-east.[2] It consisted of three voivodeships with the capitals in Kraków, Sandomierz and Lublin. It is almost 60,000 km2 in area and has about 9,000,000 inhabitants. Its landscape is mainly hilly, with Karpaty mountains in the south; it is located it the basin of upper Vistula. It has been famous for its mighty aristocracy (magnateria) and rich nobility (szlachta).[3]
In the era of partitions, its southern part, Galicia, was sometimes also called Lesser Poland. As a result of this long-lasting division, many inhabitants of the northern part of the pre-partition region of Poland (including such cities as Lublin, Radom, Kielce and Częstochowa) do not recognize their Lesser Polish identity.[4]
However, while Lublin(Lubelskie) was declared an independent Voivodeship as early as 1474,[5] it still has speakers of the Lesser Polish dialect, and various local traditions as well as cuisine which carry over from the time of Lesser Poland.
In Silesian Voivodeship, the border between Silesia and Lesser Poland is easy to draw, because with few exceptions, it goes along boundaries of local counties. In the south, it goes along western boundary of ancient Duchy of Teschen, with the borderline along the Biała river, where Zwardoń, Milówka, and Rajcza are in Lesser Poland. Bielsko-Biała is a city made of two parts – Lesser Poland's Biala (also called Biala Krakowska), makes eastern half of the city, and only in 1951 it merged with Silesian Bielsko.[7] Further north, the border goes along western boundaries of cities of Jaworzno, and Sosnowiec, along the Przemsza and Brynica rivers. Then it goes northwest, leaving Czeladź, Siewierz, Koziegłowy, Blachownia, Kłobuck and Krzepice within Lesser Poland.[8] From Krzepice, the border goes eastwards, towards Koniecpol, and along the Pilica river, with such towns as Przedborz,[9] Opoczno,[10]Drzewica, Białobrzegi,[11] and Kozienice[12] within Lesser Poland. East of Białobrzegi, the boundary goes mainly along the Radomka river, to the Vistula. East of the Vistula, the boundary goes north of Łaskarzew and Żelechów, and south of Mazovian town of Garwolin,[13] turning northwest. Extreme northern point of the province is marked by the Liwiec river, with both Siedlce, and Łuków being part of Lesser Poland.[14] The line then goes south, with Miedzyrzec Podlaski being part of historical Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and Radzyń Podlaski[15] as well as Parczew left in Lesser Poland.
Historically, Lesser Poland was divided into two lands - Kraków Land and Sandomierz Land, both of which emerged after the Testament of Bolesław III Krzywousty. In the 14th century, Sandomierz Voivodeship and Kraków Voivodeship were created, and in 1474, Lublin Voivodeship was carved of three Sandomierz Voivodeship counties, located on the right bank of the Vistula. Historian Adolf Pawiński, who in the late 19th century was director of Polish Central Archives of Historical Records, estimated in his book "Polska XVI wieku pod względem geograficzno-statystycznym", that the size of Kraków Voivodeship was 19,028 km2. Sandomierz Voivodeship had the area of 25,762 km2., and Lublin Voivodeship - 11,033 km2. Together with the Duchy of Siewierz (607 km2.), and the parts of Spiš that belonged to Poland after the Treaty of Lubowla (1211 km2.), total area of Lesser Poland was 57,640 square kilometers.[22] Apart from the three historic lands, Lesser Poland has other smaller regions, such as Podhale, Ponidzie, and Zagłębie Dąbrowskie.
Origin of the name
Zygmunt Gloger in his work Historical geography of land of ancient Poland (Geografia historyczna ziem dawnej Polski) states that according to a Polish custom, whenever a new village was formed next to an older one, the name of the new entity was presented with an adjective little (or lesser), while the old village was described as greater. The same procedure was used in naming these two Polish provinces – the "older" one, the cradle of the Polish state, was called Greater Poland, while her "younger sister", which became part of Poland a few years later, was called Lesser Poland. The name Greater Poland (Polonia Maior) was for the first time used in 1242, by princes Boleslaw and Przemysław I, who named themselves Duces Majoris Poloniae (Princes of the Older Poland).[23] Lesser Poland, or Polonia Minor, appeared for the first time in historical documents in 1493, in the Statutes of Piotrków, during the reign of King Jan Olbracht,[24] to distinguish this province from Greater Poland (Polonia Maior).
In the first years of Polish statehood, southern Lesser Poland was inhabited by the West Slavic tribe of Vistulans, with two major centers in Kraków and Wiślica. Their land, which had probably been part of Great Moravia, and Bohemia,[25] was annexed by Mieszko I of Poland some time in the late 10th century. Cosmas of Prague in his Chronicle of Bohemians wrote: "Polish prince Mieszko, a cunning man, seized by ruse the city of Kraków, killing with sword all Czechs he found there".[26] Northern part of Lesser Poland (Lublin and Sandomierz) was probably inhabited by another tribe, the Lendians,[27] and dr Antoni Podraza, historian of the Jagiellonian University claims that ancient division of Lesser Poland into two major parts – Land (Duchy) of Kraków, and Land (Duchy) of Sandomierz, is based on the existence of two Slavic tribes in the area.[28] However, exact location of the Lendians has not been determined to this day. Some historians speculate that they occupied Red Ruthenia, and their center was in Przemyśl.[29]
Będzin Castle, which guarded western border of Lesser Poland
Unlike other Polish provinces, especially Silesia, Lesser Poland did not undergo further fragmentation, and in the early 14th century became the core of the reunited nation (together with Greater Poland).[36] The period of nation's fragmentation came to a symbolic end on 30 January 1320, when Władysław I the Elbow-high was crowned as King of Poland. The ceremony took place in Kraków's Wawel Cathedral, and the king of the reunited country decided to choose Kraków as the capital. Through 14th and 15th centuries, Lesser Poland's position as the most important province of the nation was cemented. It became visible during the reign of Casimir III the Great, who favored less known Lesser Poland's noble families, at the expense of Greater Poland's nobility.[37] The reign of Casimir the Great was a period of growing prosperity of Lesser Poland. With high density of population, fertile soils and rich deposits of minerals (especially salt in Bochnia and Wieliczka, as well as lead in Olkusz), the province was the richest part of Poland. After annexation of Red Ruthenia, Lesser Poland lost its status of the borderland, and both regions created an economic bridge between Poland and the ports of the Black Sea.[25] The king, who drew Jewish settlers from across Europe to his country, built several castles along western border of Lesser Poland, with the most notable ones in Skawina, Pieskowa Skała, Będzin, Lanckorona, Olkusz, Lelów, Bobolice, Krzepice, Ogrodzieniec, Ojców, Olsztyn, Bobolice, Mirów (see also Eagle Nests Trail). Furthermore, he built or strengthened castles in other parts of the province, such as Szydlow, Chęciny, Wiślica, Radom, Niedzica, Opoczno, Lublin, Sandomierz, as well as the Wawel Castle. Also, during his reign (1333–1370), Casimir the Great founded on Magdeburg rights several cities, urbanizing hitherto rural province.[38] Among major Lesser Poland's cities founded by the King, there are:
In the Kingdom of Poland, Lesser Poland was made of three voivodeships – Kraków Voivodeship, Sandomierz Voivodeship, and Lublin Voivodeship, created in 1474 out of eastern part of the Sandomierz Voivodeship.[39] Borders of the province remained unchanged until 1772. The only exception was large part of contemporary Upper Silesia (the area around Bytom, Toszek, Siewierz, and Oświęcim), which belonged to Duchy of Kraków until 1179. In that year, prince of Kraków Casimir II the Just, handed these lands to Prince of OpoleMieszko I Tanglefoot.[40] The Duchy of Siewierz, ruled since 1443 by the Archbishop of Kraków, merged with Lesser Poland in 1790. Other Silesian realms lost in 1179, also returned to Lesser Poland – Duchy of Zator (in 1513), and Duchy of Oświęcim (1564). Both duchies merged into a Silesian County of the Kraków Voivodeship, and shared the fate of Lesser Poland. Apart from Jews, among other ethnic minorities of the province were the Walddeutsche, who settled the borderland of Lesser Poland and Red Ruthenia (14th through 17th centuries). In the Middle Ages, the Germans inhabited several cities of Lesser Poland, especially Kraków and Sandomierz (see Rebellion of wójt Albert).
In the late Middle Ages, Lesser Poland gradually became the center of Polish statehood,[41] with Kraków being the capital of the country from the mid-11th century until 1596. Its nobility ruled Poland when Queen Jadwiga was too young to control the state, and the Union of Krewo with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was the brainchild of Lesser Poland's szlachta.[42]
The period in Polish history known as the Polish Golden Age was very fortunate for Lesser Poland. Kings of the Jagiellonian dynasty, especially Sigismund I the Old (himself born in Lesser Poland's Kozienice), and his son Sigismund II Augustus (born in Kraków), resided in Kraków, which was the capital of the immense Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth. Lesser Poland's prosperity was reflected in numerous examples of Renaissance architecture complexes, built across the province. In 1499, hiherto GothicWawel Castle was damaged in a fire, and a few years later, Sigismund I, with help of the best native and foreign artists (such as Francesco the Florentine, Bartholomeo Berrecci or Niccolo Castiglione[45]) refurbished the complex into a splendid Renaissance palace. Furthermore, in the early 16th century, several palaces were built in Lesser Poland – in Drzewica, Szydłowiec, Ogrodzieniec, and Pieskowa Skała. The province became rich mostly due to the grain trade, conducted along the Vistula, and among cities which prospered in the 16th century, there are Kraków, Sandomierz, Lublin, Kazimierz Dolny, Pilzno, Tarnów, Radom, Biecz. In later years of the 16th century, further palaces were built or remodelled in Baranow Sandomierski, and Niepołomice.
In the early 16th century, Protestant Reformation spread across the Commonwealth, and Lesser Poland became one of early centers of the movement, when students from Wittenberg brought the news to Cracow.[46] In the first years of the century, professor of Jagiellonian University Jakub of Iłża (Jakub z Ilzy, died 1542) became one of the main promoters of the movement in the region. He actively supported the notions of Martin Luther, and in 1528 was called to the Bishop of Kraków's court. Convinced of heresy, he was forced to leave Poland in 1535. Reformation soon became very popular among Lesser Poland's nobility, especially Calvinism, and according to one estimate, some 20% of local szlachta converted from Roman Catholicism.[47] They were attracted by Calvinism's democratic character, and Lesser Poland's center of the movement was set in the town of Pińczów, which came to be known as Sarmatian Athens. It was in Pińczów, where a local nobleman converted a Roman Catholic parish into a Protestant one, opened a Calvinist Academy, and published its Antitrinitarian confession in 1560 and in 1561.[48] Several Calvinist synods took place in Lesser Poland – the first one in Słomniki (1554), Pińczów (the first united Synod of Poland and Lithanian – 1556[49] 1561), and Kraków (1562). In 1563, also in Pińczów, the so-called Brest Bible was translated into Polish language. In 1570, the Sandomierz Agreement was signed by a number of Protestant groups, with the exception of the Polish Brethren, another religious group very influential in Lesser Poland. The Brethren had their center in Lesser Poland's village of Raków, where a main Arian printing press, as well as a college, known as Akademia Rakowska (Gymnasium Bonarum Artium) founded in 1602 were located. Among distunguished European scholars associated with the school, there were Johannes Crellius, Corderius, and Valentinus Smalcius (who translated into German the Racovian Catechism).
In 1572, the Jagiellon dynasty died out, and next year, Henry III of France became first elected king of the country. After his short reign, and War of the Polish Succession (1587–88), which also took place in Lesser Poland, the new ruler was Stephen Báthory of Poland, who died in 1586. The ruler from Transylvania was followed by Sigismund III Vasa of Sweden, whose election marked gradual decline of the province. Sigismund's eyes were set on Sweden, and for many years he concentrated his efforts on a futile attempt to regain his former Swedish throne (see Polish–Swedish union, War against Sigismund). Therefore, Lesser Poland, located in southwestern corner of the Commonwealth, began to lose its importance, which was marked in 1596, when Sigismund moved his permanent residence, court and the crown headquarters to centrally-located Warsaw.[50]
Members of the regional Folk Group of Wilamowice "Cepelia Fil Wilamowice"[51]Lachy Sądeckie are a group of ethnic Poles who live in southern Lesser Poland
Swedish invasion of Poland had catastrophic consequences for the hitherto prosperous province. The attackers, supported by their allies from Transylvania, seized whole Lesser Poland, reaching as far south as Nowy Targ, Nowy Sącz, and Żywiec.[53] All major cities were looted and burned, and some of them, like Radom, did not recover until the 19th century.[54] The Swedes captured and pillaged Sandomierz (where they destroyed the Royal Castle, and after the invasion, the city never recovered[55]), Opoczno,[56] Lublin,[57] Kazimierz Dolny[58] Pilzno,[59] Szydlow,[60] Szydłowiec,[61] Tarnów,[62] Kielce,[63] Kraśnik,[64] and Kraków. The invaders seized the capital of Lesser Poland after a short siege, and their occupation of the province was confirmed after their victories in the Battle of Wojnicz, and the Battle of Golab. In those years, one of the most important and symbolic events in the history of the nation took place in Lesser Poland. It was the Siege of Jasna Góra, which, according to some accounts, turned the course of the war. Furthermore, following the Treaty of Radnot, Lesser Poland was invaded in January 1657 by George II Rákóczi, whose troops caused more destruction. Foreign armies were not chased out of Lesser Poland until 1657, Kraków itself was recaptured on 18 August 1657. After these invasions, the province was ruined, with hundreds of villages, towns and cities burned. The population decreased (the urban population by nearly half[65]), the peasantry starved, and like other parts of the Commonwealth, Lesser Poland was devastated. The period of peace lasted for about forty years, when in 1700, another major conflict, the Great Northern War began. Lesser Poland once again became a battleground, with Battle of Kliszów taking place there in 1702, and the Sandomierz Confederation formed in 1704.
After the conflict, Lesser Poland began a recovery, which was hampered by several other factors. Province's cities frequently burned (Lublin 1719, Nowy Targ 1784, Nowy Sącz, Dukla 1758, Wieliczka 1718, Miechów 1745, Drzewica), there also were numerous outbreaks of plagues and typhus (in 1707–1708, some 20,000 died in Kraków and its area[66])
Lesser Poland was one of main centers of the Bar Confederation. On 21 June 1786 in Kraków, local confederation was announced, and on the same day Voievode of Kraków, Michal Czarnocki, urged his citizens to join the movement. Soon afterwards, Kraków was captured by the Russian troops, and the center of Lesser Poland's insurgency moved to the mountainous south – areas around Dukla and Nowy Sącz.[67] During the Confederation, several battles and skirmishes took place there. In 1770, after the Battle of Iwonicz, the Russians ransacked Biecz. The movement ended in 1772, and its decline was connected with the Partitions of Poland. Another local center of the movement was Jasna Góra Monastery in Częstochowa, which was defended by Kazimierz Pulaski for almost two years (1770–1772).[68]
The Partitions of Poland began earlier in Lesser Poland than in other provinces of the country. In 1769, Austrian Empire annexed a small territory of Spisz, and next year, the towns of Czorsztyn, Nowy Sącz and Nowy Targ.[69] In 1771, the Russians and the Prussians agreed on the first partition of the country, and in early 1772, Austrian Emperor Maria Theresa decided to join the two powers. In the first partition of the Commonwealth, the Austrians seized the territory which would later be called Galicia, and which included southwestern corner of Lesser Poland (south of the Vistula river), with Żywiec, Tarnów, and Biecz, but without major urban centers of the province, such as Kraków, Sandomierz, Radom, Lublin, Częstochowa, and Kielce.
Second Partition of Poland (1793) did not result in significant changes of boundaries in the area, as the Austrian Empire did not participate in it. However, the Prussians moved on, and in 1793 they annexed northwestern corner of the province, together with the city of Częstochowa,[8][70] and its vicinity, which became part of the newly created province of South Prussia. Therefore, in late 1793, Lesser Poland was already divided between three countries – Austrian Empire (south of the Vistula), Kingdom of Prussia (Częstochowa and northwestern corner), and still existing Commonwealth. After the Third Partition (1795), most of Lesser Poland was annexed by Austria, with all major cities. Prussia managed to seize a small, western part of the province, with the towns of Siewierz, Zawiercie, Będzin, and Myszków, calling this land New Silesia, while the Austrians decided to name newly acquired lands of northern Lesser Poland West Galicia. In 1803, West Galicia was merged with Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, but retained some autonomy. Lesser Poland was one of major centers of Polish resistance against the occupiers. On 24 March 1794 in Kraków, Tadeusz Kościuszko announced the general insurrection (see Kosciuszko Uprising), mobilising all able males of Lesser Poland. Two weeks later, Battle of Raclawice took place, ending with a Polish victory. The uprising was suppressed by combined Prusso – Russian forces, and among battles fought in Lesser Poland, there is Battle of Szczekociny.
Most of the November Uprising, which began in 1830, missed Lesser Poland, as major battles took place in the area around Warsaw. In early 1831, when Russian forces advanced into Congress Poland, some skirmishes took place in northern counties of the province – at Puławy, Kurow, and Kazimierz Dolny. In early 1846, a group of Polish patriots attempted a failed uprising in the Free City of Kraków. The insurrection was quickly suppressed by the Austrian troops, and as a result, the Free City was annexed by the Austrian Empire. In the same year, Austrian part of Lesser Poland was witness to a massacre of Polish nobility by the peasantry, known as Galician slaughter. The peasants, led by Jakub Szela, murdered about 1000 nobles, and destroyed about 500 manors.[71] These events took place in three counties – Sanok, Jasło and Tarnów.
Northern and central Lesser Poland (the part of the province which was taken by the Russian Empire) was one of the main centers of the January Uprising (1863–1864). In the first days of the insurrection, skirmishes with the Russian Army took place in such towns, as Łuków, Kraśnik, Szydłowiec, Bodzentyn, and Suchedniów. Since the Poles were poorly armed, the Russians did not have major problems with them, and soon afterwards, the insurrectionists decided to organize military camps. Among biggest camps in Lesser Poland, there were Ojców (3000 soldiers), and Wąchock, where Marian Langiewicz gathered up to 1500 people. The uprising died out by early spring of 1864, and among counties where it continued for the longest time, was the extreme northeastern corner of Lesser Poland, around Łuków, where reverend Stanisław Brzóska was active. Since Russian military supremacy was crushing, the Poles were forced to limit their actions to guerrilla warfare. Among the biggest battles which took place in Lesser Poland there are: Battle of Szydłowiec (23 January 1863); Battle of Miechów (17 February 1863); Battle of Małogoszcz (24 February 1863); Battle of Staszów (17 February 1863); Battle of Pieskowa Skała (4 March 1863); two Battles of Opatów (25 November 1863, 21 February 1864).
In the 19th century, Kraków's Jagiellonian University was a major center of Polish science and culture
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Lesser Poland remained one of the centers of Polish culture, especially the city of Kraków, where Jagiellonian University was one of only two Polish-language colleges of that period (the other one was University of Lwów). Another significant center of national culture was the town of Puławy, where in the late 18th century, a local palace owned by Czartoryski family became a museum of Polish national memorabilia and a major cultural and political centre. A number of prominent artists, both representing Romanticism, and Positivism was born in Lesser Poland, including Wincenty Pol (born in Lublin), Stefan Żeromski (born near Kielce), Aleksander Świętochowski (born near Łuków in extreme northeast corner of Lesser Poland), Walery Przyborowski (born near Kielce), Piotr Michałowski, Helena Modjeska, Henryk Wieniawski (born in Lublin), Leon Wyczolkowski (born near Siedlce), Juliusz Kossak (born in Nowy Wiśnicz), Jozef Szujski (born in Tarnów). In the early 20th century, Lesser Poland, especially its part which belonged to Austria-Hungary, was a center of a cultural movement called Young Poland. Many artists associated with the movement were born in Lesser Poland, with the most prominent including Wladyslaw Orkan, Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer, Xawery Dunikowski, Jacek Malczewski, Jozef Mehoffer, and Stanisław Wyspiański.
Since Austrian part of Poland enjoyed a wide autonomy, the province of Galicia, whose western part was made of Lesser Poland, became a hotbed of Polish conspirational activities. In anticipation of a future war, Galician Poles, with help of their brethren from other parts of the divided country, created several paramilitary organizations, such as Polish Rifle Squads, and Riflemen's Association. The capital of Lesser Poland, Kraków, was a key center of pro-independence movements, with such individuals, as Józef Piłsudski, being actively involved in those activities. In August 1914, after the outbreak of World War I, Pilsudski's Legions crossed the Austrian – Russian border north of Kraków, and entered Congress Poland. However, the Pilsudski and his soldiers were disappointed to see that the inhabitants of Kielce did not welcome them with joy.[80] The division of Lesser Poland was more visible than ever.
During World War I, Lesser Poland became one of main theaters of the Eastern Front. Russian push into the territory of Austria – Hungary resulted in the Battle of Galicia. Among other major battles which took place in Lesser Poland, there are the Battle of the Vistula River, and the Gorlice-Tarnów Offensive. After Russian troops had retreated east, whole province was under control of the Austrians and the Germans, and northern Lesser Poland was part of the German-sponsored Kingdom of Poland (1916–1918). In later stages of the conflict, the divided province once again became a center of Polish independence movement. An independent Polish government was re-proclaimed in northern Lesser Poland's city of Lublin, on 7 November 1918. Soon afterwards, it formed the basis of the new government of the country.[81] In other parts of the province, other governments were formed – Polish Liquidation Commission in Kraków, also the short-lived Republic of Tarnobrzeg.
The division of Lesser Poland along the Vistula river, which lasted from 1772 until 1918, is visible even today. For more than 100 years, southern Lesser Poland (Kraków, Tarnów, Biala Krakowska, and Nowy Sącz) was administered by Austria, while northern, larger part of the province (Częstochowa, Sosnowiec, Kielce, Radom, Lublin, Sandomierz) was forcibly part of the Russian Empire. Inhabitants of Austrian part of Poland enjoyed limited autonomy,[82] with Polish language institutions, such as Jagiellonian University. At the same time, Russian-controlled Poland was subject to Russification. As a result of decades of this division, most inhabitants of the areas stolen by Russia are not aware of their Lesser Poland's heritage. Furthermore, current administrative boundaries of the country still reflect the defunct border between the former Russian and Austria–Hungarian Empires.
In 1918, when Second Polish Republic was created, whole historical Lesser Poland became part of restored Poland. The historical area of the province was divided between four voivodeships: Kraków Voivodeship (whole), Kielce Voivodeship (whole), Lwów Voivodeship (northwestern corner), and Lublin Voivodeship (western part). Furthermore, in the counties of central Lesser Poland, another administrative unit, Sandomierz Voivodeship was planned, but due to the outbreak of World War II, it was never created. Boundaries between two major Lesser Poland voivodeships – Kraków, and Kielce, were the same as pre-1914 boundaries of Austria-Hungary, and Russia. Nevertheless, in the interbellum period, the notion of Lesser Poland was frequently associated only with former Austrian province of Galicia.[39] Therefore, Western Galicia to the San river, was called Western Lesser Poland, while Eastern Galicia, east of the San, with the city of Lwów, was called Eastern Lesser Poland (voivodeships of Tarnopol, Stanisławów, and Lwów).
In late 1918, Lesser Poland emerged as one of main centers of fledgling Polish administration and independence movement. According to historian Kazimierz Banburski of Tarnów's District Museum, Tarnów was the first Polish city which became independent, after 123 years of oppression. On 31 October 1918, at 8 am, Tarnów's inhabitants began disarming demoralized Austrian soldiers, and after three hours, the city was completely in Polish hands.[83] On 28 October 1918, Polish Liquidation Committee was created in Kraków. A few days later, socialist peasants founded the Republic of Tarnobrzeg. In the night of 6/7 November 1918, Polish People's Republic was proclaimed in Lublin, by Ignacy Daszynski and other activists. In 1919, the legislative election took place in Lesser Poland without major problems.
At that time Lesser Poland, like other provinces of the country, faced several problems. Even though major post-World War I conflicts (such as Polish–Soviet War) did not take place there, it suffered from unemployment, overpopulation, and poverty, especially in towns and countryside. Furthermore, Polish government had to connect parts of the hitherto divided country. There was no direct rail link between Kraków, and Kielce, Radom, and Lublin, and until 1934, when line from Kraków to Tunel was opened, all travelers had to go via Sosnowiec – Maczki. Lack of rail communication between former Austrian and former Russian parts of Lesser Poland is visible even today. Between Kraków and Dęblin, there are only two rail bridges along the Vistula. Residents of the province tried to improve their conditions using legal means, but when it turned out to be impossible, they took to fighting (1923 Kraków riot, 1937 peasant strike in Poland). As if to exacerbate the desperate situation, Lesser Poland witnessed a catastrophic flood in 1934, after which the government decided to construct dams on local rivers.
Even though Lesser Poland's countryside was almost exclusively Polish, its towns and cities were inhabited by numerous Jews, whose communities were very vibrant. In Kraków, Jews made 25% of the population, in Lublin – 31%, in Kielce – 30%, and in Radom – 32%. Apart from the Jews, and Gypsies scattered in the south, there were no other significant national minorities in interbellum Lesser Poland.
Since Lesser Poland was safely located in the middle of the country, away from both German and Soviet border, in the mid-1930s Polish government initiated one of the most ambitious project of the Second Polish Republic – Central Industrial Region, which was located almost exclusively in Lesser Poland. Even though the project was never completed, several plants were constructed, both in Old-Polish Industrial Region, and in other counties of the province. The brand new city of Stalowa Wola was established in dense forests, around a steel mill. In the late 1930s, Lesser Poland was quickly changing, as construction of several factories, and job opportunities caused influx of rural inhabitants to the towns. Such towns, as Dębica, Starachowice, Puławy, or Kraśnik, quickly grew, with their population rising. Earlier, in 1927, Lesser Poland's Dęblin became a major center of Polish aviation, when Polish Air Force Academy was opened there, and in Mielec, PZL Mielec was opened, which was the largest aerospace manufacturer in Poland. Central Industrial Region, however, did not affect western counties of Lesser Poland, which had already been urbanized and industrialized (Biala Krakowska, Żywiec, Kraków, Jaworzno, Zagłębie Dąbrowskie, Zawiercie, and Częstochowa). The government of Poland planned further investments, such as a major East – West rail line, linking Volhynia, and Upper Silesia, but they never materialized. Desperate situation and lack of jobs caused thousands of inhabitants of Lesser Poland (especially from its southern part) to leave their land, mostly for the United States of America,[84] but also Brazil, and Canada.
On 1 September 1939, armed forces of Nazi Germany attacked Poland (see: Invasion of Poland). Lesser Poland, due to its proximity to the then-border with Germany, became a battleground on the first day of the invasion. The Germans attacked the province both in its northwest (area west of Częstochowa), and in the south (Podhale), along the border with Slovakia, Third Reich's ally.
Lesser Poland was defended by the following Polish armies:
Karpaty Army, which covered southern, mountainous border of the province,
Kraków Army, guarding western part of the province, together with adjacent Polish part of Upper Silesia. Later in the course of war it joined the Karpaty Army, forming the Lesser Poland Army (Armia Małopolska),
Łódź Army, which protected extreme northwestern corner of the province, north of Częstochowa,
Prusy Army, which was main reserve of the Commander in Chief, and was concentrated in central and northern Lesser Poland (between Radom and Kielce),
Lublin Army, improvised after 4 September, and concentrated in the area of Lublin and Sandomierz in northeastern Lesser Poland.
After a few days the Battle of the Border was lost, and forces of German Army Group South advanced deep into Lesser Poland's territory. Polish troops resisted fiercely, and among major battles in initial stages of the war, which took place in Lesser Poland, there are Battle of Mokra, Battle of Jordanów, and Battle of Węgierska Górka. By 6 September, Polish forces were in general retreat and Marshal of Poland Edward Rydz-Śmigły ordered all troops to fall back to the secondary lines of defences at the Vistula and San Rivers. German units entered Częstochowa on 3 September (where on the next day they murdered hundreds of civilians), Kielce on 5 September, Kraków on 6 September, and Radom on 8 September (see also Battle of Radom). Within a week, almost whole Lesser Poland was under Nazi occupation. Northeastern part of the province, the area of Lublin, was held by the Poles until 17 September, but eventually, and after fierce battles (see Battle of Tomaszów Lubelski), all Lesser Poland was firmly under Nazi control. First draft of Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact stipulated that northeastern Lesser Poland (east of the Vistula river) was to be occupied by the Soviet Union, and forces of the Red Army reached the area of Lublin after 20 September, but withdrew east on 28 September.
Anti-Nazi resistance was particularly strong in Lesser Poland, and it was in the extreme northwestern corner of the province (around Opoczno), that armed struggle against the occupiers began in late 1939 and early 1940 (see Henryk Dobrzański). Structures of the Home Army were well-developed in the region. Lesser Poland's independent areas of the Home Army were located in Kraków, Kielce-Radom, and Lublin. During Operation Tempest in mid-1944, several Lesser Poland's towns were liberated, also uprising in Kraków was prepared, but never realized. Apart from the Home Army, other resistance groups were strong in the province, such as pro-Communist Armia Ludowa, peasant's Bataliony Chłopskie, and right-wing National Armed Forces, with its Holy Cross Mountains Brigade.
In all major Lesser Poland's cities, Jewish ghettos were opened, with the biggest ones in Kraków, and Lublin. At first the Nazis were planning to create a so-called "reservation" for European Jews, located around Lesser Poland's town of Nisko (see Nisko Plan), but they changed the plan, and decided to murder all Jews. Condemned to death, Jews in Lesser Poland took to fighting (see Częstochowa Ghetto Uprising), but their efforts failed. As a result of The Holocaust in Poland, once thriving and numerous Jewish population of Lesser Poland was decimated.
In the summer of 1944, after Lvov–Sandomierz Offensive, Red Army pushed the Wehrmacht from eastern Lesser Poland. The city of Lublin was captured by the Soviets on 22 July 1944, Stalowa Wola – on 1 August, and Sandomierz, on the left bank of the Vistula – on 18 August. The front line stabilized along the Vistula for about six months (with some bridgeheads on the western bank on the Vistula – see Battle of Studzianki), and in early 1945, Soviet Vistula–Oder Offensive began, which pushed Germans to the gates of Berlin. The Soviets entered Kielce on 15 January, Częstochowa – on 17 January, and Kraków on 19 January. On 27 January, the Red Army entered Sosnowiec. In took the Soviets much longer to clear the areas in the mountains – they did not enter Żywiec until 5 April 1945.[85]
Post-World War II
Together with the Red Army, NKVD and Soviet authorities followed, whose purpose was to make Poland a Communist country, with a puppet government, formed as Polish Committee of National Liberation. Since 1 August 1944, the provisional government was officially headquartered in Lesser Poland's Lublin. Thousands of people took to the forests, to continue their fight for free Poland (see Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–46)). Lesser Poland again was one of the main centers of the resistance. Several skirmishes took place in the province, including Battle of Kuryłówka. The Communists did not hesitate to kill those rebels they captured (Public execution in Dębica (1946)), and by 1947, the resistance movement was crushed. The last Polish cursed soldier, Józef Franczak, was killed in 1963 near Świdnik in northeastern Lesser Poland. Also, all victims of the 1951 Mokotów Prison execution were members of Lesser Poland's branch of Freedom and Independence. Another well-known anti-Communist fighter from Lesser Poland is Józef Kuraś, who was active in the southern region of Podhale.
In early 1945, the lands of Lesser Poland were divided between three voivodeships – those of Kraków, Lublin, and Kielce. Since summer 1945, several counties were transferred to neighboring voivodeships – eastern Lesser Poland (Dębica, Jasło, Mielec) became part of Rzeszów Voivodeship, while western counties of Będzin and Zawiercie were transferred to Katowice Voivodeship. In 1950, the city of Częstochowa became part of Katowice Voivodeship, and next year, the city of Bielsko-Biała was created out of Lesser Poland's Biala Krakowska, and Upper Silesia's Bielsko. The new city became part of Katowice Voivodeship. Lesser Poland was further divided in 1975, when territorial reform was carried out (see Voivodeships of Poland (1975–1988)). Counties were abolished, and several small voivodeships were created, in such Lesser Poland's towns and cities, as Tarnobrzeg, Tarnów, Nowy Sącz, Bielsko-Biała, Radom, Częstochowa, and Siedlce.
The government of Communist Poland invested in heavy industry, following the pre-1939 idea of Central Industrial Area. In Kraków, a new district of Nowa Huta was constructed in the 1950s. In Częstochowa and Zawiercie, the steelworks were significantly expanded, and in early 1970, the government initiated construction of Katowice Steelworks, which, despite its name, is located in Lesser Poland's Dąbrowa Górnicza. To connect Katowice Steelworks with Soviet plants, in late 1970s Broad Gauge Metallurgy Line was opened, which crossed Lesser Poland from west to east. Among other major factories, opened in Lesser Poland during Communist rule, there are:
Between 1971 and 1977, Central Trunk Line was opened, which goes along western boundary of the province, and which connects Kraków and Katowice, with Warsaw. In the early 1980s, construction of a highway between Kraków and Katowice began. The 61-kilometer road is now run by Stalexport Autostrada Małopolska, and is part of A4 highway.
In 1998, the government of Poland carried out administrative reform of the country. For the first time in history, Lesser Poland Voivodeship was created, with capital in Kraków, and area of 15,108 square kilometers. The new province covers only a small, southwestern part of historical Lesser Poland.
There were suggestions that Lesser Poland voivodeship should stretch from Bielsko-Biała, to Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski and Sandomierz. Furthermore, creation of Old Poland Voivodeship was proposed, on the historical lands of northern Lesser Poland. Also, since about half of territory of current Silesian Voivodeship belongs to historical Lesser Poland, there are suggestions to rename it into Silesian – Lesser Poland Voivodeship.[86]
Major cities and towns (by size)
The list is based on the Polish Central Statistical Office list of 100 biggest cities of Poland, as for 30 June 2008.[87]
In the Kingdom of Poland and Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, several other locations used to be important urban centers of Lesser Poland, but in the course of the time, their significance declined. The main example is Sandomierz, which for hundreds of years was one of the most important cities of Poland,[88] but now is a town of 25,000. Other examples of historically important places, which are now little towns or villages are:
Biecz, a town of 5,000, once the seat of a county, incorporated in 1257,
Chęciny, a village now, once the seat of a county, with a royal castle,
Czchów, a town of 2,000, incorporated before 1333, once the seat of a county,
Goraj, a village now, which used to be one of urban centers of Lublin Voivodeship,
Iłża, a town of 5,000, incorporated before 1294, with a royal castle,
Kazimierz Dolny, which enjoyed its greatest prosperity in the 16th and the first half of the 17th century,
Urzędów, a village now, which in 1405–1869 used to be a town and the seat of a county,
Wiślica, a village now, which was probably the capital of the Vistulans, and the seat of a county,
Wojnicz, now a town of 3,500, incorporated in 1278, used to be the seat of a county,
Zawichost, a town of 2,000, once a royal town with a castle, incorporated before 1255.
Economy and industry
History of industry in Lesser Poland goes back to prehistoric times, when in Świętokrzyskie Mountains, first bloomeries were constructed. In the Middle Ages, first plants were opened in that area, and as a result, Old-Polish Industrial Region was created, which was a major industrial region of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In the 17th century, first Polish blast furnaces were constructed in Samsonów by Italian engineer Hieronim Caccio. Apart from iron products, used for military purposes, Old-Polish Industrial Region also manufactured charcoal and glass. In 1782, in Poland there were 34 bloomeries, out of which 27 were located in Old-Polish Industrial Region. Another major industrial area of Lesser Poland is Zagłębie Dąbrowskie, where in the 16th century, lead, silver, and zinc were found. As early as in the 15th century, coal was exctracted in Trzebinia – Siersza, and in the following centuries, especially in the 19th century, several coal mines and steel mills were opened in Zagłębie and in Zagłębie Krakowskie (first coal mine in Jaworzno was opened in 1792). In nearby Olkusz, the history of zinc mining dates to the 12th century when Casimir II the Just set up a mining settlement. Also, in the towns of Wieliczka and Bochnia, salt mines were established in the 12th and 13th centuries (see Bochnia Salt Mine, Wieliczka Salt Mine).
In the 20th century, natural resources were also discovered in central and eastern counties Lesser Poland.
In 1964, the world's largest open-pit sulfur mine was opened in Machów near Tarnobrzeg.[89] Other sulfur deposits in the area of Tarnobrzeg are Jeziorko, Grzybów-Gacki, and Grębów-Wydza. The mine at Machów is now closed. In the late 1960s, eastern Lesser Poland became one of three coal basins of the country, when Lublin Basin was created.[90] Major coal mine in the area is KWK Bogdanka near Łęczna, which is the only coal mine in Poland which has continuously generated a profit. Other Polish coal mines located in Lesser Poland are those found in western part of the province, along the boundary with Upper Silesia – KWK Janina in Jaworzno, KWK Sobieski, and also in Jaworzno. Copper and silver are extracted in Myszków (see Myszków mine).
Tarnów – Rzeszów Industrial Region (Tarnowsko-Rzeszowski Okręg Przemysłowy), which stretches from Tarnów to Rzeszów, with such towns, as Dębica, Niedomice, Sędziszów Małopolski, Ropczyce.
Since the lands of historical Lesser Poland belong now to different voivodeships, unemployment rate differs from one region to another. In January 2010, in Poland the unemployment rate was 12,7%.[92] In Silesian Voivodeship, eastern half of which is Lesser Poland, it was 9,9%, in Lesser Poland Voivodeship – 10,5%, in Subcarpathian Voivodeship – 16,3%, in Holy Cross Voivodeship – 15,5%, in Lublin Voivodeship – 13,6%, and in Mazovian Voivodeship (southern part of which is Lesser Poland) – 9,6%. In Lesser Poland's cities, the best situation was in Kraków (as for November 2009[93]), where 4,1% had no job. In Bielsko-Biała, the rate was 5,7%, in Lublin – 8,8%, in Siedlce – 9,1%, in Tarnów – 9,2%, in Nowy Sącz – 10%, in Kielce and Częstochowa – 10,1%, in Jaworzno – 10,2%, in Dąbrowa Górnicza – 10,3%, in Sosnowiec – 12,2%, and in Tarnobrzeg – 14,3%. The worst situation on the job market (as for November 2009) was in Radom, where unemployment rate was 20,9% (it made Radom second worst city county of the nation, only after Grudziądz).
Transport
Roads
Several European roads (see International E-road network) cross Lesser Poland. The most important one is the European route E40, which goes from west to east, across whole Europe. In Lesser Poland, the E40 goes from Jaworzno, via Kraków and Tarnów, towards eastern border of the country. Another main European road in Lesser Poland is the E77, which goes from north to south, via Radom, Kielce and Kraków, to southern border of Poland at Chyżne. Third major European road in Lesser Poland is the E30, which crosses the territory of the province in its extreme northeast corner, in Siedlce. Apart from these roads, Lesser Poland is crossed by the following European routes:
E371, which begins in Radom, and goes via Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski, Tarnobrzeg, and Rzeszów to the border crossing at Barwinek,
E372, which begins in Warsaw, and via northeastern Lesser Poland (Lublin, Świdnik), goes to Ukrainian border at Hrebenne,
E75, which crosses western counties of Lesser Poland – from Częstochowa, through Dąbrowa Górnicza and Jaworzno, to Bielsko-Biała and Polish – Czech border.
Airports
Within borders of historical Lesser Poland, there are two airports – John Paul II International Airport Kraków – Balice, and Katowice International Airport, which is located in the village of Pyrzowice, on the border between Lesser Poland and Upper Silesia. Pyrzowice is part of Gmina Ożarowice, which after Partitions of Poland, and Congress of Vienna belonged to Będzin County of the Russian Empire. In the interbellum, the area of future airport belonged to Lesser Poland's Kielce Voivodeship, and in 1945, was transferred to Katowice Voivodeship (initially Silesian-Dąbrowa Voivodeship). In 1998, Ożarowice, together with the airport, was attached to Tarnowskie Góry County, despite the fact that it is not located in Upper Silesia[94]
Further airports in Lesser Poland will be opened in the future – Lublin – Świdnik,[95] Kielce – Obice,[96] and Radom – Sadków.[97] Also, Rzeszów-Jasionka Airport is located on eastern border of the province.
Railroads
Railroad network of Lesser Poland is very unevenly distributed. It is very dense in the west, along the border with Upper Silesia, and sparse in the east, especially along the Vistula, and around Lublin. All major cities of the province are connected with each other, however traveling from Kraków to Lublin is time-consuming, as trains have to take an extended route, via Kielce, Radom, and Dęblin. Also, there is no direct connection between Tarnów and Kielce, as these cities belonged to different countries before 1918. Underdevelopment of the railroads in northern and eastern Lesser Poland is the result of the policy of the Russian Empire. For military reasons, the Russians were not interested in construction of a dense network of lines along the border with Germany and Austria-Hungary, allowing only the construction of narrow-gauge connections.[98] Along the Vistula, between Kraków and Dęblin (the distance of some 320 kilometers), there are only four rail bridges – in Dęblin (rebuilt after the war, in 1947[99]), in Sandomierz (built in 1928[100]), in Tarnobrzeg-Nagnajów (built in 1961, together with a road bridge[101]), and in Zaduszniki (built in 1979 for the Broad Gauge Metallurgy Line[102]). In Kraków itself, there are three rail bridges over the Vistula.
In the late 1970s, the Communist government built the broad-gauge Broad Gauge Metallurgy Line, which crosses Lesser Poland from west to east along the Vistula.
Lesser Poland is home to Poland's oldest university – Kraków's Jagiellonian University, which was established in 1364. For centuries, it was the only college of the province, and of the whole country. In December 1918, John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin was opened, becoming second university of Lesser Poland. In 1944, also in Lublin, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University was established.
Since Lesser Poland ceased to exist as a unified region in the late 18th century, during the Partitions of Poland, most of its inhabitants are not aware of their heritage. Even the residents of Jaworzno, a city which for centuries belonged to Kraków Land and only in 1975 was transferred to Katowice Voivodeship (see Voivodeships of Poland (1975–98)), are not familiar with their Lesser Polish roots. In a poll in April 2011, 57% of Jaworzno's inhabitants stated that their city is historically tied with Lesser Poland, but as many as 36% said their city is tied with Upper Silesia.[109] Polish linguist Jan Miodek emphasizes the fact that linguistically, Będzin is closer to Myślenice than to Tarnowskie Góry, only 20 km away. Miodek wrote that even though Upper Silesia and Lesser Poland's Zagłębie Dąbrowskie are industrially and administratively tied, both regions are culturally and linguistically different from each other.[110] Residents of Zagłębie Dąbrowskie are known for their dislike of Upper Silesians, whom they call hanysy, while the Silesians call them gorole. In recent years, more inhabitants of Zagłębie become aware of their Lesser Poland's heritage,[111] Also, after Partitions of Poland, when Austrian province of Galicia was created, the cities of Rzeszów and Przemyśl, which are part of historical Red Ruthenia, became to be associated with Lesser Poland. Therefore, currently the notion of Lesser Poland most commonly applies to the two voivodeships which in the past belonged to Austrian Empire – Lesser Poland Voivodeship, and Subcarpathian Voivodeship[112]
Among several Lesser Poland's regional organizations, one of the most important is Stowarzyszenie Gmin i Powiatów Małopolski (The Association of Villages and Counties of Lesser Poland). It publishes a magazine called Wspólnota Małopolska (Lesser Polish Community), and every year it chooses a Lesser Polish Person of the Year (among winners are John Paul II, Anna Dymna, and Stanisław Dziwisz). The Association of Villages and Counties of Lesser Poland has over 120 members from four Polish voivodeships. Among members are cities of Kraków, Częstochowa, Bielsko-Biała, Tarnów, and Przemyśl.[113]
Folklore group in Podhale costume, Bukowina Tatrzańska, Lesser Poland, 2016
Folk costumes from Lesser Poland are widely known across the country – a dancing couple, dressed in traditional Kraków costume (Krakowiacy), is presented on the logo of renowned Żywiec beer,[115] and Podhale is one of few Polish regions, where people regularly wear their traditional costumes.[116] Both Kraków and Podhale folk costumes are among most popular garbs in Poland.[117] Other folk costumes from the region are those of Zagłębie Dąbrowskie, Sandomierz, Rzeszów, Częstochowa, Kielce, Radom (regarded as the most traditional of all Polish costumes[118]), Opoczno, Holy Cross Mountains, Nowy Sącz, and Lublin. There are several folk festivals in Lesser Poland, such as On the frontier of Lesser Poland and Mazovia (in Opoczno[119]), Folk Festival of Józef Myszka (in Museum of Radom Village in Iłża[120]), annual Days of Lesser Poland's Cultural Heritage,[121]Week of the Beskidy Culture (in several locations), Wianki in Kraków, Festival of Old Music and Culture in Niepołomice, Festival of Folk Bands and Folk Singers in Kazimierz Dolny, International Folklore Meetings of Ignacy Wachowiak in Lublin, International Festival of Folklore of Mountain Lands in Zakopane, Jewish Culture Festival in Kraków. Krakowiak is one of Polish national dances, other popular Lesser Poland's folk dances are Zbójnicki from Podhale and dances from Lublin. Among Lesser Poland's customs are Lajkonik, and Kraków szopka.
Polish flat soda bread (known as Proziaki in podkarpacie)
Among popular rock music bands from Lesser Poland, there are Budka Suflera, Golec uOrkiestra, Maanam, and Zakopower. From Lesser Poland hail composers Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz, and Krzysztof Penderecki, as well as singers Basia, Ewa Demarczyk, Justyna Steczkowska, Grzegorz Turnau, Maciej Zembaty. Major music festivals in the province are: Coke Live Music Festival in Kraków, Celtic Music Festival ZAMEK in Będzin, Film Music Festival in Kraków, Gaude Mater in Częstochowa, Boyscout's Festival of School Music in Kielce, Summer with Chopin in Busko-Zdrój, Festiwal of Shanties in Kraków, and Festival of Student Song in Kraków.
A map of dialects of the Polish language. The area where Lesser Poland's dialect is spoken is marked in orange.
Lesser Polish dialect is spoken in southeastern corner of Poland, both in lands which belong to historical Lesser Poland, and in areas which are not part of the province (around Sieradz and Łęczyca). On the other hand, as seen on the map, Lesser Polish dialect is not spoken in extreme northeast of Lesser Poland, in Siedlce and vicinity, where people rather speak Masovian dialect. Descending from the language of the Vistulans, it is the most numerous dialectal group in modern Poland. According to Wincenty Pol, it is divided into three subdivisions: Sandomierz dialect, Lublin dialect, and Sanok dialect.[122]
In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, Lesser Polish dialect, together with Greater Polish dialect, contributed to creation of standard Polish, it also greatly influenced Silesian language (see Dialects of the Polish language), as well as dialects of Polish used in southern part of Kresy Wschodnie. Later on, however, its importance diminished and was replaced by Masovian dialect, which became the leading dialect of Polish. After Partitions of Poland, when Lesser Poland was divided between Austria and Russia, northern areas of the province took over many features of the Masovian dialect, while Lesser Polish dialect in Austrian province of Galicia was heavily influenced by German.
According to Multimedia Guide to Polish Dialects, a webpage maintained by University of Warsaw, Lesser Polish dialect is divided into the following subdialects:
Mazowsze Borderland (Pogranicze Mazowsza – around Radom and Dęblin),
Malopolski – Polish breed of horse, developed in Lesser Poland,
Wymysorys language, a West Germanic micro-language actively spoken in the small town of Wilamowice near Bielsko-Biała, on the border between Silesia and Lesser Poland.
^Podraza, Antoni (1 June 1999). "Małopolska w przeszłości i dziś" (in Polish). Wspólnota Małopolska. Retrieved 19 April 2011. Czy dzisiejszy mieszkaniec Kielc, Radomia albo Lublina poczuwa się do tego, że pochodzi z Małopolski? Mieszkańcom dawnej Małopolski brakuje przeświadczenia, iż pochodzą z tej samej dzielnicy, które tak wyraźnie cechuje mieszkańców Wielkopolski czy Mazowsza.
^Waldseemüller, Martin (1525), "Karte von Germania, Kleinpolen, Hungary, Walachai u. Siebenbuergen nebst Theilen der angraenzenden Laender", Claudii Ptolemaei geographicae enarrationis libri octo (in Latin and German)
^ ab"Przewodnik po Częstochowie z 1909 roku" [The 1909 Guide to Czestochowa and vicinity] (in Polish). Czestochowski Serwis Informacyjny. Retrieved 19 April 2011. Starostwo krzepickie, zajmujące prawie 1/3 część dzisiejszego powiatu Częstochowskiego (do starostwa należało miasto Kłobuck i dwadzieścia kilka okolicznych wsi), zaliczało się do województwa krakowskiego i do powiatu lelowskiego.
^"Przedbórz" (in Polish). Portal Turystyczno – Krajoznawcy. Archived from the original on 6 September 2010. Retrieved 19 April 2011. W XVI – XVIII w. Przedbórz był siedzibą starostwa niegrodowego w ówczesnym województwie sandomierskim.((cite web)): Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^"Powiat Opoczyński" [History of Opoczno County] (in Polish). Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2011. ((cite web)): Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^"Powiat Kozienicki" [County of Kozienice, History and monuments] (in Polish). Archived from the original on 16 June 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2011. Ziemie wchodzące w skład dzisiejszego powiatu kozienickiego należały do dawnej dzielnicy sandomierskiej (...) Województwo sandomierskie obejmowało całą wschodnią część Małopolski po obu stronach Wisły.((cite web)): Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^""Kalendarium historii Żelechowa" cz. 1" (in Polish). Biuletyn Informacyjny Nasz Wspólny Powiat. Archived from the original on 24 March 2010. Retrieved 19 April 2011. Stąd właśnie Żelechów wraz z Ziemią Stężycką, w której centrum był położony, należał nie do Mazowsza, jak pobliski Garwolin, lecz do Ziemi Sandomierskiej, a wraz z nią do Małopolski.((cite web)): Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^"Historia miasta" [History of the city] (in Polish). Oficjalna Strona Internatowa Miasta Siedlce. Archived from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2011. Teren, na którym leżą obecnie Siedlce, stanowił niegdyś najbardziej na północ wysuniętą część małopolskiej ziemi łukowskiej i wraz z nią wchodził w skład województwa sandomierskiego, a od 1474 r. do lubelskiego.((cite web)): Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^"Historia Administracyjna Gminy Krasnystaw" [History] (in Polish). Gmina Krasnystaw. Retrieved 19 April 2011. Krasnystaw należał więc do powiatu krasnostawskiego w ziemi chełmskiej w województwie ruskim.
^"Historia miasta" [Town of Leżajsk] (in Polish). Serwis Internetowy Urzędu Miejskiego Leżajsku. Archived from the original on 13 August 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2011. Przez cały wiek XIV Leżajsk należał do dóbr królewskich zgrupowanych w północno-wchodniej części województwa ruskiego w ówczesnym powiecie krzeszowskim((cite web)): Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^"Notariusz Zalewska-Watras Barbara" (in Polish). Archived from the original on 19 October 2009. Kolbuszowa leżała w województwie sandomierskim i należała do powiatu sądowego i skarbowego w Pilźnie.((cite web)): Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^"Przewodnik: Ropczyce i okolice" (in Polish). Podkarpacki Regionalny Portal Turystyczny. Archived from the original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2011. Ropczyce leżą w dolinie Wielopolki. W okresie staropolskim tereny te należały do województwa sandomierskiego.((cite web)): Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^"Historyczna Małopolska" [Historical Lesser Poland] (in Polish). Nowa Małopolska. 10 April 2007. Retrieved 20 April 2011. Przebiega∏a ona od Karpat w rejonie Jas∏a, wzd∏u˝ rzeki Jasio∏ki, a nast´pnie przechodzi∏a przez Wis∏ok, zostawiajàc po stronie polskiej Strzy˝ów, zaÊ po ruskiej Rzeszów.
^Pawiński, Adolf (1 January 1886). "Małopolska. T. 1". Warszawa. Retrieved 5 March 2017 – via dLibra.
^Antoni Podraza, Małopolska w przeszłości i dziś"Można sądzić, że pierwotny podział Małopolski na dwie części, krakowską i sandomierską, wiąże się właśnie z istnieniem nie jednego, a dwóch plemion na tym obszarze"
^Official portal of Lesser Poland Voivodeship "W roku 1038 Polske najechal czeski ksiaze Brzetyslaw I. Zajal i ograbil Wielkopolske, Slask i Malopolske, zdewastowal takze Gniezno. Jednym z waznych niezniszczonych osrodków ówczesnej Polski byl Kraków, gdzie, po zwyciestwie nad Brzetyslawem, Kazimierz Odnowiciel przeniósl swoja siedzibe."
^"History of Bytom". Bytom.pl. 13 December 2007. Archived from the original on 7 October 2011. Retrieved 8 October 2011. ((cite web)): Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^"LESSER POLAND". Poland.com portal. Retrieved 19 April 2011. However, already by the mid-11th century Lesser Poland had risen in status to be Poland's principal province.
^Bandurewicz, Martyna (12 June 2009). "Królowa Jadwiga Andegaweńska". Gazeta Wyborcza (in Polish). Retrieved 19 April 2011. Ze względu na małoletniość Jadwigi rządy w jej imieniu sprawowali możnowładcy małopolscy. To oni zadecydowali o unieważnieniu zaręczyn z księciem austriackim, i oni prowadzili rokowania w sprawie wyboru jej przyszłego małżonka.
^Tourist Information – Warsaw Hotel Start "Its central location was the main reason for holding royal elections here. After Wawel Castle in Cracow burnt down, King Zygmunt III Waza moved his permanent residence, court and the crown headquarters from Cracow to Warsaw in 1596."
^093, CreateNewMedia - http://www.cnm.pl tel. 0503 023. [http://www.fil.wilamowice.pl/page.php?id=14 "Regionalny Zesp�� Pie�ni i Ta�ca "Cepelia Fil-Wilamowice""]. www.fil.wilamowice.pl. Retrieved 3 August 2016. ((cite web)): |last= has numeric name (help); External link in |first= (help); replacement character in |title= at position 16 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^"obraz". Pilzno.karmelici.pl. 28 February 2006. Archived from the original on 8 September 2012. Retrieved 8 October 2011. ((cite web)): Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 20 June 2009. Retrieved 17 November 2009. ((cite web)): Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^"Historia miasta" (in Polish). Gmina Mologoszcz. Retrieved 19 April 2011.
^"Powiat Stachowicki" (in Polish). Archived from the original on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2011. ((cite web)): Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^"Historia miasta" (in Polish). KOMENDA POWIATOWA; PAŃSTWOWEJ STRAŻY POŻARNEJ; W BUSKU – ZDROJU. Archived from the original on 1 March 2012. Retrieved 19 April 2011. ((cite web)): Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^"Gmina Drzewica". Drzewica.pl. Archived from the original on 30 September 2011. Retrieved 8 October 2011. ((cite web)): Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^Jewish Guide, Galicia"Under the rule of emperor Franz Josef broad autonomy was granted to Galicia due to the political shrewdness and common sense of Polish intelligentsia."
^StayPoland page on Sandomierz"At one time it played a role of great importance in the life of the country, but nowadays it is simply a rural town of great beauty"
^"Airport Radom SA". Lotnisko-radom.eu. Archived from the original on 18 March 2012. Retrieved 8 October 2011. ((cite web)): Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^Miodek, Jan. "Zagłębie Dąbrowskie (comment)" (in Polish). Województwo Śląskie. Retrieved 19 April 2011. Zagłębie językowo przynależy do Małopolski, co oznacza, że pod tym względem bliżej jest z Będzina do – dajmy na to – Myślenic niż do oddalonych o 20 km Tarnowskich Gór
^Lesser Poland Tourist Information "Tak więc dziś mówiąc o Małopolsce, mówimy w zasadzie o dwóch województwach, które swoje siedziby mają w Krakowie i Rzeszowie, choć nazwę „małopolskie” zarezerwowano dla tego pierwszego"
^"Stowarzyszenie" (in Polish). Stowarzyszenie Gmin i Powiatów Małopolski. Retrieved 19 April 2011.
^"Powiat Opoczno". Opocznopowiat.pl. Archived from the original on 29 September 2011. Retrieved 8 October 2011. ((cite web)): Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^"Dialekt małopolski" (in Polish). Teraz Małopolska. 30 March 2010. Retrieved 19 April 2011.
^Kształcenie językowe. Uniwersytet Wrocławski. t.1–4, s. 67; "na północ od Łemkowszczyzny, na południowo-zachodnim skraju gwar nadsańskich" [w:] Slavia Orientalis. t.14, 1965. s. 247; "W dialekcie sanockim spotyka się wymowę z "n" podwójnym, a więc "Góry Słonne", jak w innych przymiotnikach, wymawianych tutaj: "szklanny", a nawet "drzewianny". [w:] Towarzystwo Literackie imienia Adama Mickiewicza, Instytut Badań Literackich PAN. Pamiętnik literacki, t. 95., nr 1-2, 2004. s. 106
^"Dialekt małopolski" (in Polish). Gwary Polskie. Archived from the original on 14 April 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2011. ((cite web)): Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
Labuda, G. (1988). "Polska, Czechy, Rus i kraj Ledzian w drugiej potowie X wieku". Studia nad poczatkami panstwa polskiego (in Polish). Vol. II. Poznań. ((cite book)): Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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