This article is part of a series on the
Science and technology of the
United States of America
Apollo 11 Lunar Module Eagle above the Moon in July 1969
Timeline
Development
Contributions by ethnicity

This list of African-American inventors and scientists documents many of the African Americans who have invented a multitude of items or made discoveries in the course of their lives. These have ranged from practical everyday devices to applications and scientific discoveries in diverse fields, including physics, biology, math, and medicine.

History

African Americans have been the victims of oppression, discrimination and persecution throughout American history, with an impact on African-American innovation according to a 2014 study by economist Lisa D. Cook, which linked violence towards African Americans and lack of legal protections over the period from 1870 to 1940 with lowered innovation.[1] Despite this, many black innovators have been responsible for a large number of major inventions.

Among the earliest was George Washington Carver, whose reputation was based on his research into and promotion of alternative crops to cotton, which aided in nutrition for farm families. He wanted poor farmers to grow alternative crops both as a source of their own food and as a source of other products to improve their way of life. The most popular of his 44 practical bulletins for farmers contained 105 food recipes using peanuts.[2] He also developed and promoted about 100 products made from peanuts that were useful for the house and farm. He received numerous honors for his work, including the Spingarn Medal of the NAACP.

A later renowned scientist was Percy Lavon Julian, a research chemist and a pioneer in the chemical synthesis of medicinal drugs from plants. He was the first to synthesize the natural product physostigmine, and a pioneer in the industrial large-scale chemical synthesis of the human hormones, steroids, progesterone, and testosterone, from plant sterols such as stigmasterol and sitosterol. His work would lay the foundation for the steroid drug industry's production of cortisone, other corticosteroids, and birth control pills.[3]

A contemporary example of a modern-day inventor is Lonnie George Johnson, an engineer. Johnson invented the Super Soaker water gun, which was the top-selling toy in the United States from 1991 to 1992. In 1980 Johnson formed his own law firm and licensed the Super Soaker water gun to Larami Corporation. Two years later, the Super Soaker generated over $200 million in retail sales and became the best selling toy in North America. Larami Corporation was eventually purchased by Hasbro, the second largest toy manufacturer in the world. Over the years, Super Soaker sales have totaled close to one billion dollars. Johnson reinvested a majority of his earnings from the Super Soaker into research and development for his energy technology companies – "It's who I am, it's what I do."[4] As of 2019, Johnson holds over 120 patents, with more pending, and is the author of several publications on spacecraft power systems.[5][6][7] https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists&action=edit&section=1

List

Name Years Occupation(s) Inventions / accomplishments References
Adkins, Rodney 1958– Electrical engineer First African American to serve as a senior vice president at IBM, helped develop IBM ThinkPad
Alcorn, George Edward Jr. 1940– Physicist, inventor Invented a method of fabricating an imaging X-ray spectrometer [8][9]
Alexander, Archie 1888–1958 Civil engineer Responsible for the construction of many roads and bridges, including the Whitehurst Freeway, the Tidal Basin Bridge, and an extension to the Baltimore-Washington Parkway.
Ammons, Virgie December 29, 1908 – July 12, 2000 Inventor Filed the fireplace throat damper patent on August 6, 1974. [10]
Amos, Harold 1918–2003 Microbiologist First African-American department chair at Harvard Medical School [11]
Andrews, James J. 1930–1998 Mathematician Put forth the Andrews–Curtis conjecture in group theory with Morton L. Curtis, still unsolved [12]
Bailey, Leonard C. 1825–1918 Inventor
Collapsible, folding bed
  • (For the cabinet folding bed, forerunner to the "Murphy bed", patented by Sarah E. Goode in 1885, see her entry at Goode, this page.)
 [13][14]
Ball, Alice Augusta 1892–1916 Chemist Developed a technique to make chaulmoogra oil injectable and absorbable, for the first effective treatment of Hansen's disease (leprosy) [15]
Banneker, Benjamin 1731–1806 Almanac author; surveyor; farmer Constructed wooden clock; astronomer; assisted in the survey of the original boundaries of the District of Columbia; authored a series of almanacs and ephemerides; naturalist: recorded observations on emergences of periodical cicadas and on the behavior of honey bees. [16]
Banyaga, Augustin 1947– Mathematician Work on diffeomorphisms and symplectomorphisms [17]
Bashen, Janet 1957– Inventor, entrepreneur, professional consultant First African-American woman to receive a patent for a web-based software invention, LinkLine, an Equal Employment Opportunity case management and tracking software [18]
Bath, Patricia 1942–2019 Ophthalmologist First African-American female physician to receive a patent for a medical invention; inventions relate to cataract surgery and include the Laserphaco Probe, which revolutionized the industry in the 1980s, and an ultrasound technique for treatment [19][20][21]
Beard, Andrew 1849–1921 Farmer, carpenter, blacksmith, railroad worker, businessman, inventor Janney coupler improvements; invented the car device #594,059 dated November 23, 1897; rotary engine patent #478,271 dated July 5, 1892 [22]
Bell, Earl S. 1977– Inventor, entrepreneur, architect, industrial designer Invented chair with sliding skin (2004) and the quantitative display apparatus (2005) [23][24]

[25]

Benjamin, Miriam 1861–1947 Inventor, educator Invented "Gong and Signal Chair for Hotels"; second African-American woman to receive a patent [26]
Berry, Leonidas 1902–1995 Gastroenterologist Gastroscope pioneer [27]
Bharucha-Reid, Albert T. 1927–1985 Mathematician, statistician Probability theory and Markov chain theorist [28]
Black, Keith 1957– Neurosurgeon Brain tumor surgery and research [29][30]
Blackwell, David 1919–2010 Mathematician, statistician First proposed the Blackwell channel model used in coding theory and information theory; one of the eponyms of the Rao–Blackwell theorem, which is a process that significantly improves crude statistical estimators [31]
Blair, Henry 1807–1860 Inventor Second black inventor to issue a patent; invented seed planter and cotton planter. [32][33]
Boahen, Kwabena 1964– Bioengineer Silicon retina able to process images in the same manner as a living retina [34][35]
Boone, Sarah 1832–1905 Inventor Ironing board allowing sleeves of women's garments to be ironed more easily [36][37][38]
Bouchet, Edward 1852–1918 Physicist First African-American to receive a PhD in any subject; received physics doctorate from Yale University in 1876
Bowman, James 1923–2011 Physician Pathologist and geneticist; Professor Emeritus Pritzker School of Medicine; first tenured African-American professor at the University of Chicago Division of Biological Sciences [39][40]
Boykin, Otis 1920–1982 Inventor, engineer Artificial heart pacemaker control unit [41][42][43]
Brady, St. Elmo 1884–1966 Chemist Published three scholarly abstracts in Science; collaborated on a paper published in the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry [44]
Branson, Herman 1914–1995 Physicist, educator Protein structure research [45][46]
Brooks, Charles 1865– ? Inventor Street sweeper truck and a type of paper punch [47][48][49]
Brown, Henry 1832– ? Inventor Invented fire safe [50]
Brown, Oscar E. 18xx– ? Inventor Received a patent for an improved horseshoe[51]
Brown, Marie Van Brittan 1922–1999 Inventor Invented the home security system [52]
Burr, John Albert 18xx– ? Inventor Rotary-blade lawn mower patent [53]
Cannon, Thomas C. 1943– Inventor Led a group of engineers who developed the Tactical Optical Fiber Connector (TOFC), the first fiber optic connector deployed under battlefield conditions, and the ST Connector that helped make fiber optic communications affordable.
Cardozo, William Warrick 1905–1962 Pediatrician Sickle cell anemia studies; in October 1937 he published "Immunologic Studies in Sickle Cell Anemia" in the Archives of Internal Medicine; many of the findings are still valid today
Carson, Ben 1951– Pediatric neurosurgeon Pediatric neurosurgery at Johns Hopkins University; first surgeon to successfully separate craniopagus twins [54]
Carruthers, George (1931–2020) Astrophysicist Invented ultraviolet camera/spectrograph, which was used by NASA when it launched Apollo 16 in 1972 [52]
Carver, George Washington 1865–1943 Botanical researcher Discovered hundreds of uses for previously useless vegetables and fruits, principally the peanut [55][56][57][58]
Chandler, Edward Marion Augustus 1887–1973 Chemist 2nd African American to obtain a PhD in chemistry in US and part of the founding faculty of Roosevelt College (now Roosevelt University) [59]
Chappelle, Charles W. 1872–1941 Electrician, construction, international businessman, and aviation pioneer Designed long-distance flight airplane; the only African-American to invent and display the airplane at the 1911 First Industrial Air Show held in conjunction with the Auto Show at Grand Central Palace in Manhattan in New York City; president of the African Union Company, Inc. [60][61][62]
Chappelle, Emmett 1925–2019 Scientist and researcher Valuable contributions to several fields: medicine, biology, food science, and astrochemistry
Chin, Karen Paleontologist Considered one of the world's leading experts in coprolites
Clark, Kenneth B. 1917–1983 Psychologist First Black president of the American Psychological Association [63]
Clark, Mamie Phipps 1914–2005 Psychologist Conducted 1940s experiments using dolls to study children's attitudes about race
Crosthwait, David Jr. 1898–1976 Research engineer Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning; received some 40 US patents relating to HVAC systems
Curtis, James H. "Nick" 1935– Researcher, chemist (electronics/specialty chemicals) Organic ionogen for aluminum electrolytic capacitors, cationic dialdehyde polysaccharides for wet strength paper and others, US Patent Office US Pat #3609467 US Pat #3547423 and others
Dabiri, John 1980– Biophysicist Expert on jellyfish hydrodynamics and designer of a vertical-axis wind farm adapted from schooling fish
Daly, Marie Maynard 1921–2003 Biochemist First black American woman with a PhD in chemistry
Davis, Chuck ? -2017 Inventor and electrical engineer Inventor of the pROSHI neurofeedback device. [64][65]
Dean, Mark 1957– Computer scientist Led the team that developed the ISA bus, and led the design team responsible for creating the first one-gigahertz computer processor chip [66][67][68]
Drew, Charles 1904–1950 Medical researcher Developed improved techniques for blood storage
Easley, Annie 1933–2011[69] Computer scientist Work at the Lewis Research Center of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and its predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics [69][70]
Ellis, Clarence "Skip" 1943–2014 Computer scientist First African American with a PhD in computer science; software inventor including OfficeTalk at Xerox PARC [71][72]
Ezerioha, Bisi 1972– Automotive engineer Drag racing engineer and driver
Ferguson, Lloyd Noel 1918–2011 Chemist, educator Chemistry doctorate, first received (1943, University of California, Berkeley) [73][74][75]
Fox, Brian J. 1959– Computer scientist, programmer, technologist Original author of bash, and developer of the first online banking website in the US. [76]
Fryer, Roland G. Jr. 1977– Economist, social scientist, statistician Inequality studies
Gates, Sylvester James 1950– Theoretical physicist Work on supersymmetry, supergravity, and superstring theory [77][78]
Gilbert, Juan E. 1969– Computer scientist Awarded the first Presidential Endowed Chair at Clemson University in honor of his accomplishments
Gipson, Mack 1931–1995 Geologist First Black man to receive a Ph.D. in Geology
Goode, Sarah E. 1855–1905 Inventor Folding "cabinet-bed", forerunner of the Murphy bed; first African-American woman to receive a patent in the United States [79][80][81]
Grant, George F. 1846–1910 Dentist, professor The first African-American professor at Harvard, Boston dentist, and inventor of a wooden golf tee. [82]
Graves, Joseph L. 1955– Evolutionary biologist [83][84][85]
Green, Lisa Linguist Specializes in syntax and the study of African American English
Greenaugh, Kevin 1956–2023 Nuclear engineer [86]
Griffin, Bessie Blount 1914–2009 Physical therapist, inventor Amputee self-feeding device [87][88]
Hall, Lloyd 1894–1971 Chemist
Harewood, Ken R. Molecular biologist GlaxoSmithKline Distinguished Professor and Director of the North Carolina Central University (NCCU) Julius L. Chambers Biomedical/Biotechnology Research institute and recognized for his work in the fields of cancer biology and cancer drug discovery. [89][90]
Harper, Solomon 1893– Inventor Invented first electrically heated hair roller and 28 other inventions [91]
Harris, James A. 1932–2000 Radiochemist Co-discovered Rutherfordium (element 104) and Dubnium (element 105) at Lawrence Livermore Laboratory [92]
Hawkins, Walter Lincoln 1911–1992 Scientist Inventor at Bell Laboratories [93]
Hodge, John E. 1914–1996 Chemist
Holley, Kerrie 1954– Computer scientist IBM's 1st black Distinguished Engineer and 2nd black IBM Fellow. Inventor of several software engineering techniques including system and methods for locating mobile devices using location and presence information [94]
Jackson, John W. Jr. 1953–2007 Electrical engineer, inventor, activist Co-inventor of imaging x-ray spectrometer. NASA engineer. United States of America Army Civilian Engineer.
Jackson, Mary 1921–2005 Mathematician, Aerospace engineer NASA's first black female engineer
Jackson, Shirley 1946– Physicist Distinguished and pioneering scientific career, achieving several "firsts" as a woman and as an African-American[95]
Jackson, William 1936– Laser chemist/photochemist, cometary astrochemist at Howard University and UC Davis Research to unravel the key photochemical sinks of important molecules in planetary atmospheres, in our and other solar systems, around stars, and the interstellar medium. [96]
Jarvis, Erich 1965– Neurobiologist Duke University neuroscience bird songs studies [97][98][99]
Jefferson, Roland 1923–2020 Botanist First African American botanist to work at the United States National Arboretum; played important role in the preservation of Washington, D.C.'s famous flowering cherry trees. [100]
Jennings, Thomas L. 1791–1856 Inventor First African American to be granted a patent (for a dry cleaning process called dry scouring) [101]
Johnson, Isaac 18xx– ? Inventor Held patent for improvements to the bicycle frame, specifically so it could be taken apart for compact storage [102]
Johnson, Katherine 1918–2020 Physicist, mathematician Made contributions to the United States' aeronautics and space programs with the early application of digital electronic computers at NASA.
Johnson, Lonnie 1949– Mechanical engineer, nuclear engineer, inventor Invented Super Soaker while researching thermal energy transfer engines; worked with NASA; holder of over 80 patents [7][103][104][105]
Jones, Frederick McKinley 1893–1961 Inventor Invented refrigerated truck systems [106]
Julian, Percy 1899–1975 Chemist First to synthesize the natural product physostigmine; earned 130 chemical patents; lauded for humanitarian achievements [107][108][109][110]
Just, Ernest 1883–1941 Woods Hole Marine Biology Institute biologist Provided basic and initial descriptions of the structure–function–property relationship of the plasma membrane of biological cells [111][112][113]
Kittles, Rick 1967– Geneticist Work in tracing the ancestry of African Americans via DNA testing [114][115]
Kountz, Samuel L. 1930–1981 Transplant surgeon, researcher Organ transplantation pioneer, particularly renal transplant research and surgery; author or co-author of 172 articles in scientific publications [116][117][118][119]
Land, Adrian Microbiologist Researcher on Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus [120][121][122]
Latimer, Lewis 1848–1928 Inventor, draftsman, expert witness Worked as a draftsman for both Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Edison; invented the more durable filament, which made the incandescent light bulb last long enough to be useful; became a member of Edison's Pioneers and served as an expert witness in many light bulb litigation lawsuits; said to have invented the water closet. [123][124][125][126]
Lawson, Jerry 1940–2011 Computer engineer Designer of Fairchild Channel F, the first programmable ROM cartridge-based video game console [127][128]
Lee, Raphael Carl 1949– Surgeon, biomedical engineer Professor at Pritzker School of Medicine; discovered ways to improve injury repair mechanisms of living cells; holds patents related to scar treatment therapies, tissue engineered ligaments, brain trauma therapies, and protective garments [129][130][131][132][133]
Lynk, Beebe Steven 1872–1948 Chemist Teacher at West Tennessee University
Mahoney, Mary 1845–1926 Nurse First African-American to study and work as a professionally trained nurse in the United States[134]
Martin, Thomas J. 1842–1872 Inventor Awarded a patent in 1872 for improvements to the fire extinguisher [135][136][137][138]
McBay, Henry 1914–1995 Chemist His discoveries allowed chemists around the world to create inexpensive peroxide compounds [139][140]
McCoy, Elijah 1844–1929 Inventor Invented the automatic lubricator for steam engines, McCoy learned a great deal of his skills from a mechanical apprenticeship when he was age fifteen. [141][142]
McLurkin, James 1972– Roboticist [143]
McNair, Ronald 1950–1986 Astronaut and Physicist Specialized in chemical and high-pressure laser physics
McWhorter, John 1965– Linguist Specializes in the study of creole language formation
Mensah, Thomas 1950– Inventor
Miles, Alexander 1838–1918 Inventor Invented electric elevator doors that automatically open and close [144]
Montgomery, Benjamin 1819–1877 Inventor Designed a steam operated propeller to provide propulsion to boats in shallow water
Moore, Willie Hobbs 1934–1994 Physicist First African American woman to earn a PhD in physics (University of Michigan Ann Arbor 1972) on vibrational analysis of secondary chlorides [145]
Morgan, Garrett 1877–1963 Inventor Invented an early version of a gas mask called a smoke hood, and created the first traffic light that included a third "warning" position which is standard today. Morgan also developed a chemical that was used in hair products for hair-straightening. [146][147]
Nriagu, Jerome 1944– Geochemist Studies toxic metals in the environment; supporter of the lead poisoning thesis of the decline of the Roman Empire
Parker, Alice H. 1895–1920 Inventor Furnace for Central Heating
Petters, Arlie 1964– Physicist Work on the mathematical physics of gravitational lensing
Poindexter, Hildrus 1901–1987 Bacteriologist, epidemiologist Work on the epidemiology of tropical diseases, including malaria
Quarterman, Lloyd Albert 1918–1982 Scientist, fluoride chemist Manhattan Project, worked with Albert Einstein and Enrico Fermi
Renfroe, Earl 1907–2000 Orthodontist [148][149]
Rillieux, Norbert 1806–1894 Engineer, inventor Inventor of the multiple-effect evaporator [150]
Robinson, Larry 1957– Environmental chemist Investigated possible role of arsenic in the death of Zachary Taylor; interim president of Florida A&M University
Ross, Archia Turn of 20th century Inventor A runner for stoops (1896), bag closure device (1898), a wrinkle-preventing trouser stretcher (1899), a garment-hanger (1903), and a holder for brooms and like articles. [151][152][153][154][155]
Russell, Jesse 1948– Engineer, inventor Wireless communications engineer
Ruth, William Chester 1882–1971 Inventor, machinist Combination baler feeder, self-lifting farm elevator [156]
Sammons, Walter 1890–1973 Inventor Patent for hot comb [157]
Snyder, Window 1976– Computer engineer Security engineer at Microsoft, Mozilla, and Apple
Sowell, Thomas 1930– Economist, social scientist Economist, social theorist and political philosopher [158][159][160][161]
Steele, Claude 1946– Psychologist, social scientist Stereotype threat studies
Stiff, Lee 1941– Mathematician President of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics from 2000 to 2002 [162]
Temple, Lewis 1800–1854 Inventor, blacksmith, abolitionist Inventor of the toggling whaling harpoon head [163]
Thomas, Valerie 1943– Data analyst and inventor Invented the illusion transmitter [164][165]
Thomas, Vivien 1910–1985 Surgical technician Blue baby syndrome treatment in the 1940s [166][167][168]
Turner, Charles Henry 1867–1923 Zoologist First person to prove that insects can hear and can distinguish pitch, that cockroaches can learn by trial and error, and that honeybees can see color; first African-American to receive a PhD from the University of Chicago [169]
Tyree, G. Bernadette 19xx– Biochemist [citation needed] Program Director, Division of Musculoskeletal Diseases, at National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health [170]
Tyson, Neil deGrasse 1958– Astronomer Researcher and popular educator in astronomy and the sciences [171][172][173]
Valerino, Powtawche 1980– Engineer Worked for JPL and NASA at Langley Research Center
Vaughan, Dorothy 1910–2008 Mathematician Worked for NACA and NASA at Langley Research Center
Walker, Arthur B. C. Jr. 1936–2001 Astronomer Developed normal incidence multilayer XUV telescopes to photograph the solar corona [174][175][176]
Walker, C. J. 1867–1919 Inventor Created black cosmetic products [177]
Ward, Dawn N. 1973– Organic chemistry Creates compounds to treat Hepatitis C [178]
Washington, Warren M. 1936– Atmospheric scientist Former chair of the National Science Board [179][180][181][182]
West, James E. 1931– Acoustician, inventor Co-developed the foil electret microphone [183][184][185]
White, Lisa Paleontologist Geologist and Director of Education and Outreach at the University of California Museum of Paleontology
Wilkins, J. Ernest Jr. 1923–2011 Mathematician, engineer, nuclear scientist Entered University of Chicago at age 13; PhD at 19; worked on the Manhattan Project; wrote over 100 scientific papers; helped recruit minorities into the sciences [186][187][188]
Williams, Daniel 1856–1931 Surgeon The first black person on record to have successfully performed pericardium (the sac surrounding the heart) surgery to repair a wound. [189]
Williams, Marguerite Thomas 1895–1991 Geologist First Black person to receive a Ph.D. in Geology
Williams, Scott W. 1943– Mathematician [190]
Williams, Walter E. 1936–2020 Economist, social scientist [191][192][193]
Woods, Granville 1856–1910 Inventor Invented the synchronous multiplex railway telegraph [194]
Wright, Jane C. 1919–2013 Cancer research and surgeon Noted for her contributions to chemotherapy and for pioneering the use of the drug methotrexate to treat breast cancer and skin cancer
Wright, Louis T. 1891–1952 Surgeon Led team that first used Aureomycin as a treatment on humans [195][196][197]
Young, Roger Arliner 1899–1964 Zoologist First African-American woman to receive a doctorate degree in zoology [198][199]

See also

References

  1. ^ Cook, Lisa D. (June 1, 2014). "Violence and economic activity: evidence from African American patents, 1870–1940". Journal of Economic Growth. 19 (2): 221–257. doi:10.1007/s10887-014-9102-z. ISSN 1573-7020. S2CID 153971489.
  2. ^ Carver, George Washington. 1916. "How to Grow the Peanut and 105 Ways of Preparing it for Human Consumption" [https://tgjcvy //web.archive.org/web/20121213082146/http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/fruit-nut/carver-peanut/ Archived] December 13, 2012, at tgjcvy (Error: unknown archive URL), Tuskegee Institute Experimental Station Bulletin 31.
  3. ^ "Percy Lavon Julian". Science History Institute. June 1, 2016. Retrieved August 3, 2020.
  4. ^ "Interview with CNBC's How I Made my Millions". The Life Files. Archived from the original on September 24, 2010. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
  5. ^ "Lonnie George Johnson". www.nsbp.org. Retrieved August 3, 2020.
  6. ^ Roche, Timothy. Soaking In Success, Time, December 4, 2000.
  7. ^ a b Products Created by Independent Inventors Archived December 31, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, April 2, 2009, Inventors Digest.
  8. ^ "George Edward Alcorn, Jr". About.com. Archived from the original on January 16, 2013. Retrieved February 27, 2008.
  9. ^ "Alcorn exceled in missile research". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. February 20, 2002. Retrieved February 27, 2008. George Edward Alcorn Jr. attended Occidental College in Los Angeles where he earned eight letters in basketball and football and was an honors student studying physics. He received his bachelor's degree in 1962 and a master's in nuclear physics from Howard University a year later. He attended Occidental College in Los Angeles where he earned eight letters in basketball and football and was an honors student studying physics. He received his bachelor's degree in 1962 and a master's in nuclear physics from Howard University a year later.
  10. ^ "The Virgie Ammons Fireplace Tool Keeps Heat from Escaping the Chimney".
  11. ^ "Dr. Harold Amos, 84; Mentor to Aspiring Minority Physicians". Los Angeles Times. March 8, 2003. Retrieved March 11, 2011.
  12. ^ Andrews, J. J.; Curtis, M. L. (1965), "Free groups and handlebodies", Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society, 16 (2): 192–195, doi:10.2307/2033843, JSTOR 2033843, MR 0173241.
  13. ^ US RE11830, Bailey, Leonard, "Folding Bed", issued June 12, 1900 
  14. ^ Bailey, Leonard C. (June 2, 1900) [Original No. 629,286, dated July 18, 1899; Application for reissue filed March 5, 1900, Serial No. 7,418], Folding bed: Specification forming part of Reissued Letters Patent No. 11,830, dated June 12, 1900. Reissued June 2, 1900 (PDF), Washington, District of Columbia: United States Patent Office, archived from the original (PDF) on March 20, 2022, retrieved March 20, 2022 – via Google patents
  15. ^ Mendheim, Beverly (September 2007). "Lost and Found: Alice Augusta Ball, an Extraordinary Woman of Hawai'i Nei". Northwest Hawaii Times. Archived from the original on October 6, 2014. Retrieved May 20, 2013.
  16. ^ Bedini, Silvio A. (1999). The Life of Benjamin Banneker: The First African-American Man of Science (2nd ed.). Baltimore: Maryland Historical Society. ISBN 0-938420-59-3. LCCN 98022848. OCLC 894558859. Retrieved September 11, 2019 – via Internet Archive.
  17. ^ Institute for Advanced Study: A Community of Scholars Archived January 6, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
  18. ^ Janet Emerson Bashen, Retrieved from About.com website March 14, 2011.
  19. ^ Henderson, Susan K. (March 1, 1998). African-American Inventors III. Capstone Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-56065-698-2.
  20. ^ "Modern Black Inventors". Jet. 101 (7): 55. February 4, 2002. ISSN 0021-5996. Retrieved February 25, 2011.
  21. ^ Lambert, Laura (September 1, 2007). Inventors and Inventions. Marshall Cavendish. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-7614-7763-1.
  22. ^ Bellis, Mary (2008). "Andrew Beard (1849–1921)". About.com: Inventors. Archived from the original on July 13, 2012. Retrieved February 14, 2008.
  23. ^ Earl S. Bell, Retrieved from About.com website June 6, 2011.
  24. ^ Earl S. Bell, Retrieved from uspto.gov website June 6, 2011.
  25. ^ Earl S. Bell, Retrieved from atlantapost.com website June 6, 2011.
  26. ^ Bellis, Mary. Inventors: Miriam Benjamin, Retrieved from About.com website, February 17, 2011.
  27. ^ "Deaths, University of Chicago Magazine, April 96". magazine.uchicago.edu. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
  28. ^ Williams, Scott W. (2008). "Mathematicians of the African Diaspora: Albert Turner Bharucha-Reid". The Mathematics Department of the State University of New York at Buffalo. Retrieved November 25, 2012.
  29. ^ Keith Black; Arnold Mann (March 25, 2009). Brain Surgeon: A Doctor's Inspiring Encounters with Mortality and Miracles. Grand Central Life & Style. ISBN 978-0-446-58109-7.
  30. ^ Michael D. Lemonick, "The Tumor War", Time, Heroes of Medicine special edition, Fall 1997 (retrieved May 15, 2009).
  31. ^ Cattau, Daniel (July 2009). "David Blackwell 'Superstar'". Illinois Alumni. University of Illinois Alumni Association. pp. 32–34.
  32. ^ Maryland's African American Heritage: Henry Blair Archived July 28, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, ThinkQuest.
  33. ^ "African American Inventors You Should Know: Henry Blair". about.com. Archived from the original on July 9, 2012. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
  34. ^ Kwabena Boahen, PhD, Associate Professor of Bioengineering Archived June 16, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, Stanford Bioengineering, Stanford School of Medicine, 2013.
  35. ^ IBM Seeks to Build the Computer of the Future Based on Insights from the Brain: IBM Awarded DARPA Funding for Cognitive Computing Collaboration, IBM Alden, November 20, 2008.
  36. ^ Sarah Boone Archived August 18, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, The Black Inventor On-Line Museum. Retrieved December 6, 2012.
  37. ^ "Ironing-board". Retrieved April 2, 2018.
  38. ^ "Sarah Boone, 7th March 1878 ?". The History Woman. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
  39. ^ Terry, Don (July 27, 2008). "Insider has Obama's ear: What's she telling him?". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on July 29, 2008. Retrieved August 23, 2008.
  40. ^ "The Bowman Society". Pritzker Pulse. Pritzker School of Medicine, University of Chicago. Spring 2005. Archived from the original on July 24, 2008. Retrieved March 15, 2009.
  41. ^ U.S. Department of Energy. Black Contributors to Science and Energy Technology (Biographical sketch: Otis Boykin), U.S. Department Of Energy, Office of Public Affairs, U.S.Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1979, pp. 8–9, DOE/OPA-0035(79)
  42. ^ Mary Bellis, "Otis Boykin", About.com Guide.
  43. ^ "Inventor of Heart Stimulator Honored at Memorial Service." Dallas Morning News, March 18, 1982, p. 88.
  44. ^ University of Illinois biography Archived September 3, 2006, at the Wayback Machine, University of Illinois.
  45. ^ "PNAS Classics – Protein Structure". pnas.org. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
  46. ^ Einseberg, David (2003). "The discovery of the alpha-helix and beta-sheet, the principal structural features of proteins". PNAS. 100 (20): 11207–11210. Bibcode:2003PNAS..10011207E. doi:10.1073/pnas.2034522100. PMC 208735. PMID 12966187.
  47. ^ US 558719, "Street Sweeper", issued 1896-04-21 
  48. ^ US 507672, "Punch", issued 1893-10-31 
  49. ^ Helton, Daniel (March 25, 2018). "Charles B. Brooks (1865-?) •". Retrieved August 3, 2020.
  50. ^ "Henry Brown". blackinventor.com. Archived from the original on September 30, 2011. Retrieved February 6, 2010."Henry Brown". blackinventor.com. Archived from the original on September 30, 2011. Retrieved February 6, 2010.
  51. ^ "The History of Horseshoes". Inventors – About.com. Archived from the original on January 1, 2013. Retrieved February 26, 2015.
  52. ^ a b "11 African American Inventors Who Changed the World". MSN. Archived from the original on August 10, 2018. Retrieved April 23, 2018.
  53. ^ Bellis, Mary. "John Albert Burr". About.com. Archived from the original on July 24, 2013. Retrieved July 22, 2013.
  54. ^ "Benjamin S. Carson Biography (1951–)". faqs.org. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
  55. ^ "Black Leonardo Book". Time. November 24, 1941. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved August 10, 2008.
  56. ^ Harlan, Volume 5, p. 481
  57. ^ Special History Study from the National Park Service website
  58. ^ The legacy of George Washington Carver-Friends & Colleagues (Henry Wallace) Archived April 15, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
  59. ^ University, Laura Mills and Lynn Y. Weiner on behalf of Roosevelt (2014). Roosevelt University. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4671-1247-5.
  60. ^ "A Successful Negro Aviator. Charles Ward Chappelle Invents and Aeroplane Which Attacks Attention." News/Opinion, Savannah Tribune, Page 1, February 11, 1911. Savannah, Georgia
  61. ^ "Mr. C.W. Chappelle: The Man, His Life, His Work And His Aspirations." The Gold Coast Nation. Page 3. June 28, 1919. Ghana.
  62. ^ The Crises: A Record of the Darker Races, "Social Uplift" (page 7), published by the National Association of Colored People (NAACP), May 11, 1911 in New York City.
  63. ^ Bio. True Story, "Kenneth Bancroft Clark Biography." Accessed December 7, 2012. [1].
  64. ^ "On my Professional Partnership with Chuck Davis". eeginfo.com. September 5, 2017. Archived from the original on March 9, 2021.
  65. ^ "Proshi website". Archived from the original on February 28, 2021.
  66. ^ McCoy, Frank (December 26, 1999). "He refined the desktop PC. Now he wants to kill it". U.S. News & World Report. Archived from the original on October 20, 2012. Retrieved August 12, 2011. A year later, Dean led a team that built a 1,000-megahertz chip [...]
  67. ^ Angel, Jonathan (August 10, 2011). "Thirty years later, the personal computer's obsolete, IBM PC designer says". Linux for Devices. Archived from the original on September 4, 2012. Retrieved August 12, 2011.
  68. ^ Dean, Mark (August 12, 2011). "IBM Leads the Way in the Post-PC Era". A Smarter Planet. Retrieved August 12, 2011. I recently traded in my PC for a tablet computer [...]
  69. ^ a b "Annie Jean Easley's Obituary". The Plain Dealer. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
  70. ^ "Interview code OHI0026830" (PDF). nasa.gov. February 11, 2015. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
  71. ^ Skip Ellis, Retrieved from Computer Scientists of the African Diaspora web site March 6, 2012.
  72. ^ Skip Ellis Archived October 25, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, Retrieved from howstuffworks Extraordinary People website, March 6, 2012.
  73. ^ "Lloyd Ferguson, a pioneering African American professor/chemist from Cal State L.A., has died", Insight News, December 28, 2011, archived from the original on September 24, 2015
  74. ^ "Biographical Snapshots of Famous Women and Minority Chemists". Journal of Chemical Education. p. Lloyd Noel Ferguson. Retrieved January 17, 2011..
  75. ^ Kessler, J. H.; Kidd, J. S.; Kidd, R. A.; Morin, K. H. (1996), Distinguished African American Scientists of the 20th Century, Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press, pp. 94–99, ISBN 978-0-89774-955-8.
  76. ^ "A Bash with Brian Fox: GNU Software and Entrepreneurship". engineering.UCSB.edu. Archived from the original on November 19, 2011.
  77. ^ "UMD PCAST announcement". University of Maryland. Archived from the original on July 27, 2009. Retrieved April 30, 2009.
  78. ^ Gates, S. James; M. T. Grisaru; M. Rocek; W. Siegel (1983). "Superspace". American Institute of Physics.
  79. ^ "Sarah Goode". Inventors. The Black Inventor On-Line Museum. 2011. Retrieved November 13, 2011.
  80. ^ "Sarah E. Goode". Inventors. Retrieved November 13, 2011.
  81. ^ Patent 322177: Improvement in Cabinet Beds - Folding Beds - Sarah E. Goode, Records of the Patent and Trademark Office, 1836-1978, July 14, 1885, National Archives ID: 7560384; Record Group 241, archived from the original on September 12, 2017, retrieved March 20, 2022 – via National Archives. Full patent image (12 pages)
  82. ^ Vrabel, Jim (2004). When in Boston: A Time Line & Almanac. Northeastern University Press. p. 238. ISBN 9781555536213.
  83. ^ Dr. Joseph L. Graves, Jr. Archived February 6, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  84. ^ Graves, Joseph L (January 1, 2002). "The Biological Case Against Race" (PDF). American Outlook. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 15, 2006. Retrieved November 15, 2006.
  85. ^ Joseph L. Graves, Jr., Ph.D. Archived June 22, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  86. ^ "Alumni Honored at Black Engineer Gala News and Current Events, A. James Clark School of Engineering, University of Maryland". School of Engineering, University of Maryland. February 20, 2006. Retrieved March 28, 2009.
  87. ^ "Bessie Blount Griffin". csupomona.edu. Archived from the original on March 1, 2009. Retrieved January 5, 2010.
  88. ^ "Virginia Women in History Past Honorees". Library of Virginia. Retrieved January 5, 2010.
  89. ^ DURHAM -- Julius Chambers has only begun to make his case for North Carolina Central University. Wall Street Journal, Eastern edition; New York, N.Y. 28 Jan 1998: S1.
  90. ^ Stancill, Jane. Durham, N.C., University Strikes Grant Gold. Knight Ridder Tribune Business News, Oct 16 2002, p. 1. ProQuest. Web. 16 Dec. 2021 .
  91. ^ MSRC Staff (2015), "HARPER, Solomon", Manuscript Division Finding Aids, no. 87, Howard University
  92. ^ "James A. Harris". Biographical Snapshots of Famous Women and Minority Chemists. Journal of Chemical Education. Retrieved May 27, 2011.
  93. ^ McMurray, Emily, ed. Notable Twentieth-Century Scientists. Gale Research, Inc.: Detroit, 1995.
  94. ^ "Google Patent Search for Kerrie Holley".
  95. ^ "The Remarkable Career of Shirley Ann Jackson". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved July 6, 2021.
  96. ^ "UC Davis Department of Chemistry". chemistry.ucdavis.edu. September 12, 2017. Retrieved August 13, 2020.
  97. ^ Singing In The Brain Archived October 7, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, Duke Magazine, November–December 2001.
  98. ^ Duke News Archived June 9, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
  99. ^ Erich Jarvis Named Howard Hughes Investigator Archived September 21, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, Duke Medicine News & Communications. Retrieved from Dukehealth.org.
  100. ^ Thiele, Amber (2006). "Roland Maurice Jefferson Collection". United States National Agricultural Library. Retrieved August 8, 2022.
  101. ^ "Diversity in Innovation: African-Americans' Impact is Forever Reaching – Inventors Digest". Inventors Digest. March 21, 2018. Retrieved April 23, 2018.
  102. ^ Bicycle Frame, Patent number: 634823, Filing date: April 6, 1898, Issue date: October 10, 1899, United States Patent Office.
  103. ^ Soaking In Success, By Timothy Roche, December 4, 2000, Time.
  104. ^ Shooting for the Sun, By Logan Ward, October 2010, The Atlantic
  105. ^ Lonni Johnson – Thermo-Electric Generator – articles, patent, The Rex Research Civilization Kit.
  106. ^ Goodman, Rebecca; Brunsman, Barrett J. (February 28, 2005). This Day in Ohio History. Emmis Books. p. 214. ISBN 978-1-57860-191-2.
  107. ^ "A Science Odyssey: People and Discoveries: Percy Julian". pbs.org. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
  108. ^ "Percy Lavon Julian". Science History Institute. June 2016. Retrieved March 21, 2018.
  109. ^ "Giants of the Past: Percy Lavon Julian (1899–1975) A Forgotten Pioneer in Soy". United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved February 18, 2012.
  110. ^ "Percy Lavon Julian (1899–1975)". Lipid Library. Archived from the original on April 15, 2012. Retrieved February 18, 2012.
  111. ^ Kelsey, Elizabeth. "Expansive Vision, Ahead of His Time: Dartmouth celebrates biologist E. E. Just, Class of 1907". Dartmouth Life. Dartmouth College. Retrieved January 28, 2009.
  112. ^ Manning, Kenneth R. (1984). Black Apollo of science : the life of Ernest Everett Just. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195034981.
  113. ^ Lee, Edward (March 2006). "Ernest Everett Just". Blacfax: 15–16.
  114. ^ Allen, Arthur (May 12, 2000). "Flesh and blood and DNA". Salon. Retrieved May 13, 2011.
  115. ^ "African American Lives 2, PBS". pbs.org. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
  116. ^ "Samuel L. Kountz Diversity Fellowship – General Surgery". Stanford Medicine. Archived from the original on June 13, 2017. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
  117. ^ Organ, CH Jr (1978). "The black surgeon in the twentieth century: a tribute to Samuel L. Kountz, MD". J Natl Med Assoc. 70 (9): 683–84. PMC 2537148. PMID 359824.
  118. ^ – Encyclopedia of Arkansas
  119. ^ Altman, Lawrence K. (December 24, 1981). "Dr. Samuel Kountz, 51, Dies; Leader in Transplant Surgery". The New York Times. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
  120. ^ Land, Adrian D.; Hogan, Patrick; Fritz, Stephanie; Levin, Petra Anne (June 22, 2015). "Phenotypic Variation Is Almost Entirely Independent of the Host-Pathogen Relationship in Clinical Isolates of S. aureus". PLOS ONE. 10 (6): e0129670. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1029670L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0129670. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4476556. PMID 26098551.
  121. ^ Land, Adrian D.; Winkler, Malcolm E. (August 2011). "The requirement for pneumococcal MreC and MreD is relieved by inactivation of the gene encoding PBP1a". Journal of Bacteriology. 193 (16): 4166–4179. doi:10.1128/JB.05245-11. ISSN 1098-5530. PMC 3147673. PMID 21685290.
  122. ^ Land, Adrian D.; Tsui, Ho-Ching T.; Kocaoglu, Ozden; Vella, Stephen A.; Shaw, Sidney L.; Keen, Susan K.; Sham, Lok-To; Carlson, Erin E.; Winkler, Malcolm E. (December 2013). "Requirement of essential Pbp2x and GpsB for septal ring closure in Streptococcus pneumoniae D39: Essential role of GpsB in pneumococcal division". Molecular Microbiology. 90 (5): 939–955. doi:10.1111/mmi.12408. PMC 4120849. PMID 24118410.
  123. ^ Fouché, Rayvon (2003). Black Inventors in the Age of Segregation: Granville T. Woods, Lewis H. Latimer, & Shelby J. Davidson. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-7319-5.
  124. ^ Clarke, John Henrik (1983). Ivan Van Sertima (ed.). Blacks in Science: Ancient and Modern. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction. pp. 230–233. ISBN 978-0-87855-941-1.
  125. ^ "Lewis Howard Latimer". National Park Service. Retrieved June 10, 2007.
  126. ^ List of 2006 NIHF inductees Archived May 13, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
  127. ^ "Fairchild Channel F – The First ROM Cartridge Console" Archived November 23, 2010, at the Wayback Machine. About.com.
  128. ^ Weber, Bruce (April 13, 2011). "Gerald A. Lawson, Video Game Pioneer, Dies at 70". The New York Times.
  129. ^ The University of Chicago Medicine. "About Raphael C. Lee, MD, ScD, DSc (Hon)". The University of Chicago Medicine. Retrieved March 21, 2022.
  130. ^ American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering. "Pierre Galletti Award - AIMBE". aimbe.org. Retrieved March 21, 2022.
  131. ^ Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering. "Fellows: Raphael Lee". pme.uchicago.edu. The University of Chicago.
  132. ^ "Department of Surgery - Faculty - Raphael Lee, MD". University of Chicago. 2008. Archived from the original on March 4, 2012.
  133. ^ Patents.Justia.com. "Raphael C. Lee Inventions, Patents and Patent Applications". Justia Patents Search. Retrieved March 21, 2022.
  134. ^ Mahoney, Mary. "Mary Eliza". American Experience, PBS. Archived from the original on March 10, 2017. Retrieved September 3, 2017.
  135. ^ "Black History Month | Caltrans". dot.ca.gov. Retrieved October 1, 2023.
  136. ^ US125063A, "Improvement in fire-extinguishers", issued 1872-03-26 
  137. ^ ionedchandler (March 26, 2013). "Thomas J. Martin Patents Improved Fire Extinguisher On This Day In 1872". NewsOne. Retrieved October 1, 2023.
  138. ^ "Alumna Publishes First Coloring Book About African-American Inventors | Alabama State University". www.alasu.edu. Retrieved October 1, 2023.
  139. ^ Brown, Mitchell, [www.lib.lsu.edu/lib/chem/display/henry mcbay.html "Faces of Science: African-Americans in the Sciences,"] 1996.
  140. ^ Kessler, James H., J.S. Kidd, Renee A. Kidd, and Katherine A. Morin. Distinguished African-American Scientists of the 20th Century. Oryx Press: Phoenix, AZ, 1996.
  141. ^ "The not-so-real McCoy". Archived from the original on May 17, 2011.
  142. ^ "Elijah McCoy, Inventor of the Week". Lemelson-MIT Program. May 1996. Archived from the original on August 23, 2003. Retrieved August 18, 2011.
  143. ^ Article outlining McLurkin's "Innovative Lives" presentation for the Smithsonian's Lemelson Center Archived July 4, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
  144. ^ "On this day in 1887: Alexander Miles patents electric elevator". theGrio. October 11, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2018.
  145. ^ "Willie Hobbs Moore, first African American Woman Physicist". Department of Mathematics, University at Buffalo. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
  146. ^ "Garrett Morgan". Biography. Retrieved April 23, 2018.
  147. ^ Currie, Stephen (2010). African American Inventors. Lucent Books. pp. 64–67. ISBN 978-1-4205-0121-6.
  148. ^ Bike, William S. "Essays on Earl Renfroe" [2]. UIC College of Dentistry Press, 2001.
  149. ^ Janega, James. "Dr. Earl Renfroe Sr., 93, Pioneering Orthodontist".Chicago Tribune. Archived May 25, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
  150. ^ Norbert Rillieux, invention of the multiple-effect evaporator Archived April 6, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, Inventions-license.com. Retrieved December 4, 2012.
  151. ^ Official Gazette of the United States Patent Office. U.S. Patent Office. 1897. p. 736.
  152. ^ "Bag closure device". U. S. Patent Office. June 7, 1898. Retrieved May 28, 2018 – via Google patents.
  153. ^ "Trousers support or stretcher" (PDF), U.S. Patents and Trademark Office, August 23, 1899, retrieved May 28, 2018 – via Free Patents Online
  154. ^ "Garment-hanger" (PDF), U.S. Patents and Trademark Office, March 17, 1903, retrieved May 28, 2018 – via Free Patents Online
  155. ^ "Holder for brooms and like articles" (PDF), U.S. Patents and Trademark Office, March 18, 1913, retrieved May 28, 2018 – via Free Patents Online
  156. ^ Bomberger, Bruce (Spring 2020). "The Inventor from Ercildoun: William Chester Ruth". Pennsylvania Heritage Magazine. Retrieved June 2, 2023.
  157. ^ Bellis, Mary. "Walter Sammons". Archived from the original on July 10, 2012. Retrieved May 27, 2011.
  158. ^ "Townhall.com". Townhall.com. Retrieved April 6, 2010.
  159. ^ "Townhall.com". Townhall.com. Retrieved April 6, 2010.
  160. ^ Nachman, Larry D. (March 1987). "A Conflict of Visions, by Thomas Sowell". Commentary.
  161. ^ "Thomas Sowell". Jewish World Review. Archived from the original on March 27, 2019. Retrieved March 12, 2010.
  162. ^ NCTM past presidents. Retrieved March 20, 2011. Archived December 19, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
  163. ^ Lewis Temple Archived August 18, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, Black Inventor Online Museum. Retrieved December 6, 2012.
  164. ^ US patent 973886, Valerie L. Thomas, "Illusion Transmitter", issued October 21, 1980 
  165. ^ "A Face Behind Landsat Images: Meet Dr. Valerie L. Thomas « Landsat Science". February 28, 2019. Retrieved June 10, 2020.
  166. ^ (1985) Pioneering Research in Surgical Shock and Cardiovascular Surgery: Vivien Thomas and His Work with Alfred Blalock, University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 9–13. ISBN 0-8122-7989-1.
  167. ^ "Almost a Miracle". Hopkinsmedicine.org. Archived from the original on March 2, 2012. Retrieved March 8, 2012.
  168. ^ OAH Award Winners Archived June 3, 2009, at the Wayback Machine, OAH Erik Barnouw Award Winners
  169. ^ Abramson, Charles I. (2009). "A study in inspiration: Charles Henry Turner (1867–1923) and the investigation of insect behavior". Annual Review of Entomology. 54: 343–59. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.54.110807.090502. ISSN 0066-4170. PMID 18817509.
  170. ^ Branch, Danny Heise, Scientific Information Technology. "Directory of phone and e-mail for all staff". niams.nih.gov. Retrieved February 9, 2017.((cite web)): CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  171. ^ "Symposium Awards". National Space Symposium. Archived from the original on April 3, 2012. Retrieved October 25, 2010.
  172. ^ "Neil deGrasse Tyson". The Great Courses. Archived from the original on March 20, 2013. Retrieved June 13, 2012.
  173. ^ Blum, Matt (August 5, 2011). "Cosmos Will Get a Sequel Hosted by Neil deGrasse Tyson". Wired. Retrieved August 5, 2011.
  174. ^ Glanz, James (May 9, 2001). "Arthur Walker, 64, Scientist and Mentor, Dies". The New York Times.
  175. ^ Dawn Levy, Art Walker : 'favorite sun' of solar physics, Stanford Report (October 4, 2000).
  176. ^ Dawn Levy, Solar physicist Art Walker dies at 64; pioneer in X-ray optics, Stanford Report (May 2, 2001).
  177. ^ "Madam C.J. Walker". Biography. Retrieved April 23, 2018.
  178. ^ "Dr. Dawn Ward – Ingenuity Project". Ingenuity Project. Retrieved July 17, 2020.
  179. ^ NCAR's Warren Washington elected chair of National Science Board May 10, 2002.
  180. ^ Warren M. Washington Collection Archived November 24, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, National Center for Atmospheric Research.
  181. ^ Warren Washington Receives National Science Medal, National Center for Atmospheric Research, University Corporation for Atmospheric Research, October 15, 2010.
  182. ^ Warren M. Washington: Senior Scientist & Head of the Climate Change Research Section, Climate and Global Dynamics Division, The National Center for Atmospheric Research, National Academy of Sciences.
  183. ^ "James B. West of WSE receives Benjamin Franklin Medal : Johns Hopkins University – The Gazette". Gazette.jhu.edu. May 10, 2010. Retrieved March 9, 2012.
  184. ^ "Ian Moss: America's Diversity Can Provide Prosperity". HuffPost. April 21, 2010. Retrieved March 9, 2012.
  185. ^ "Invent Now | Inventor Profile". Invent.org. February 10, 1931. Archived from the original on February 15, 2012. Retrieved March 9, 2012.
  186. ^ "Services Update". ieee.org. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
  187. ^ "University of Chicago to commemorate accomplishments of mathematics alumnus J. Ernest Wilkins Jr". www-news.uchicago.edu. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
  188. ^ Zerbonia, Ralph G. (contrib. by Alic, Margaret) (2005) Contemporary Black Biography, Gale Research Inc, 2005, Vol.49 (Original from the University of Michigan), Digitized September 17, 2008, ISBN 0-7876-6731-5, ISBN 978-0-7876-6731-3, (biography viewable via Answers.com);
  189. ^ Beatty, William K. (August 1, 1971). "Daniel Hale Williams: Innovative Surgeon, Educator, and Hospital Administrator". Chest. 60 (2): 175–182. doi:10.1378/chest.60.2.175. ISSN 0012-3692. PMID 4937039.
  190. ^ "Scott W.Williams | Mathematical Association of America". www.maa.org. Retrieved August 3, 2020.
  191. ^ "Happy Birthday Walter Williams". Cato at Liberty. March 31, 2011.
  192. ^ Williams, Walter (August 25, 1997). "Capitalism and the Common Man". Retrieved March 20, 2013.
  193. ^ Williams, Walter. "The Pursuit of Happiness – Economics for the Citizen". The Freeman. Archived from the original on November 24, 2010. Retrieved December 6, 2010.
  194. ^ Bellis, Mary. Granville T. Woods, 1856–1910.
  195. ^ Kwame Anthony Appiah, Henry Louis Gates – Africana: Civil Rights: An A-to-Z Reference of the Movement that Changed America
  196. ^ "Kenyon College". Northbysouth.kenyon.edu. Retrieved February 1, 2012.
  197. ^ "Medicine: Negro Fellow". Time. October 29, 1934. Archived from the original on November 25, 2010. Retrieved February 1, 2012.
  198. ^ Maisel, Merry & Smart, Laura (1997). "Lifelong Struggle of a Zoologist". Women in Science: A selection of sixteen significant contributors. The San Diego Supercomputer Center.
  199. ^ Young, R.A. (1924). "On the Excretory Apparatus in Paramecium". Science. 60 (1550): 244. Bibcode:1924Sci....60..244Y. doi:10.1126/science.60.1550.244. JSTOR 1649643. PMID 17814573.

External links

Inventions and discoveries
African Americans
Categories