Emanuel Lasker and Wilhelm Steinitz both sitting down at a chessboard during a game. Steinitz has the White pieces, and Lasker has the Black pieces.
Emanuel Lasker (left) facing incumbent champion Wilhelm Steinitz (right) in Philadelphia during the 1894 World Chess Championship

The World Chess Championship has taken various forms over time, including both match and tournament play. While the concept of a world champion of chess had already existed for decades, with several events considered by some to have established the world's foremost player, an event explicitly held to decide a world champion did not take place until 1886. World Championships were initially privately organized matches, with each requiring the consent of the incumbent champion in order to take place. After 1948, the International Chess Federation (FIDE) began organizing the Championship under its auspices. The championship was fixed to a three-year cycle, with each challenger decided by a Candidates Tournament. In 1993, the short-lived Professional Chess Association (PCA) split from FIDE, and as a result there were two competing World Championship titles between 1993 and 2006.

Key

Key to symbols and headers
Date The year the event took place, further disambiguated as needed
† Event was a tournament, as opposed to a match.
‡ Event resulted in a draw, with the champion retaining the title.
# Scheduled event did not take place.
✻ Event began, but was abandoned without any result.
Winner The winner of the event, or the champion otherwise retaining the title. Numerals denote the updated number of event wins or title defences by the champion.
Score The performance of the eventual champion.
Segments such as tie-breaks are listed sequentially.
Head-to-head tournament results are given in a footnote.
Runner-up The second-place finisher of the event, or the challenger for a match without a winner
Ref References and footnotes corresponding to the event.

Predecessor events (before 1886)

Chess was first introduced to Europe during the 9th century.[1] In the early modern era, following the solidification of the modern rules of chess, the game continued to carry consistent prestige and public interest.[2] While numerous players have been characterized as the game's strongest over the centuries, the idea of an international chess match or tournament did not occur until the 18th century,[3] and did not materialize until the 19th century.[4] While the following events did not have the title of World Champion at stake, they have been recognized—either at the time or in retrospect—as indicating the world's leading player.

Predecessor events prior to 1886
Date Location Winner Score Runner-up Format Ref
1834 United Kingdom London France Louis de La Bourdonnais 18‍–‍7
4‍–‍5
6½‍–‍5½
11½‍–‍6½
7½‍–‍4½
4‍–‍5 		United Kingdom Alexander McDonnell Casual play [5]
1843 France Paris United Kingdom Howard Staunton 13‍–‍8 France Pierre Saint-Amant First to 11 wins [6]
1851† United Kingdom London Kingdom of Prussia Adolf Anderssen 15‍–‍6[a] United Kingdom Marmaduke Wyvill Single-elimination tournament with 16 players [7]
1858 France Paris United States Paul Morphy 8‍–‍3 Kingdom of Prussia Adolf Anderssen First to 7 wins [8]
1862† United Kingdom London Kingdom of Prussia Adolf Anderssen 11½‍–‍1½ German Confederation Louis Paulsen Round-robin tournament with 14 players [9]
1866 United Kingdom London Austrian Empire Wilhelm Steinitz 8‍–‍6 Kingdom of Prussia Adolf Anderssen Best of 15 [10]
1883† United Kingdom London United Kingdom Johannes Zukertort 22‍–‍4 Austria-Hungary Wilhelm Steinitz Double round-robin tournament with 14 players [11]
  1. ^ 2½‍–‍½ Kieseritzky; 4‍–‍2 Szén; 4‍–‍1 Staunton; 4½‍–‍2½ Wyvill

Privately organized matches (1886–1946)

With both Wilhelm Steinitz and Johannes Zukertort seen as plausible claimants, the two played a match for the first World Championship in 1886. While Steinitz would later claim that he had been the World Champion since the 1860s, no match before 1886 was played for any formal title.[12] From then until after World War II, championship matches were privately organized, and the champion was not formally obliged to face an opponent. An agreement had to be reached between the champion, the challenger, and the patrons sponsoring each match, which included providing the funds for the prize pool.[13] Lasker's 27-year reign as World Champion is the longest in the history of organized chess since 1886, but featured two separate 10-year spans during which he did not defend his title.

Privately organized matches (1886–1946)
Date Location Winner Score Runner-up Format Ref
1886 United States New York City (1–5), St. Louis (6–9), New Orleans (10–15) Austria-Hungary Wilhelm Steinitz 12½‍–‍7½ United Kingdom Johannes Zukertort First to 10 wins [14]
1889 Spanish Empire Havana United States Wilhelm Steinitz (2) 10½‍–‍6½ Russia Mikhail Chigorin Best of 20, tiebreak if required [15]
1890–1891 United States New York City United States Wilhelm Steinitz (3) 10½‍–‍8½ Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen Isidor Gunsberg [16]
1892 Spanish Empire Havana United States Wilhelm Steinitz (4) 10‍–‍10
2½‍–‍½ 		Russia Mikhail Chigorin [17]
1894 United States New York City (1–8), Philadelphia (9–11), Canada Montréal (12–19) German Empire Emanuel Lasker 12‍–‍7 United States Wilhelm Steinitz First to 10 wins [18]
1896–1897 Russia Moscow German Empire Emanuel Lasker (2) 12½‍–‍4½ United States Wilhelm Steinitz [19]
1907 United States New York City (1–6, 15), Philadelphia (7–8), Washington, D.C. (9), Baltimore (10), Chicago (11), Memphis (12–14) German Empire Emanuel Lasker (3) 11½‍–‍3½ United States Frank Marshall First to 8 wins [20]
1908 German Empire Düsseldorf (1–4), Munich (5–16) German Empire Emanuel Lasker (4) 10½‍–‍5½ German Empire Siegbert Tarrasch [21]
Jan–Feb 1910‡ Austria-Hungary Vienna (1–5),
German Empire Berlin (6–10) 		German Empire Emanuel Lasker (5) 5‍–‍5 Austria-Hungary Carl Schlechter Best of 10 [22]
Nov–Dec 1910 Germany Berlin Germany Emanuel Lasker (6) 9½‍–‍1½ France Dawid Janowski First to 8 wins [23]
1921 Cuba Havana Cuba José Raúl Capablanca 9‍–‍5 Weimar Republic Emanuel Lasker Best of 24 [24]
1927 Argentina Buenos Aires France Alexander Alekhine 18½‍–‍15½ Cuba José Raúl Capablanca First to 6 wins [25]
1929 German Empire Wiesbaden (1–8, 24–25), Heidelberg (9–11), Berlin (12–17),
Netherlands The Hague (18–19, 23), Rotterdam (20), Amsterdam (21–22) 		France Alexander Alekhine (2) 15½‍–‍9½ Weimar Republic Efim Bogoljubow First to both 6 wins and 15 points [26]
1934 Germany 12 cities[A] France Alexander Alekhine (3) 15½‍–‍10½ Germany Efim Bogoljubow [27]
1935 Netherlands 12 cities[B] Netherlands Max Euwe 15½‍–‍14½ France Alexander Alekhine [28]
1937 Netherlands 9 cities[C] France Alexander Alekhine (4) 15½‍–‍9½ Netherlands Max Euwe [29]
Title vacant from 1946 to 1948, following the death of Alekhine.
  1. ^ Germany Baden-Baden (1–3), Villingen (4–5), Freiburg (6–8), Pforzheim (9–10), Stuttgart (11–12), Munich (13–15), Bayreuth (16), Kissingen (17–18), Nuremberg (19–20), Karlsruhe (21), Mannheim (22–24), Berlin (25–26)
  2. ^ Netherlands Amsterdam (1–3, 8–9, 12–13, 18, 20, 23, 25–26, 28–30), The Hague (4, 6, 11, 22, 27), Delft (5, 24), Utrecht (7), Gouda (10), Groningen (14), Baarn (15), 's-Hertogenbosch (16), Eindhoven (17), Zeist (19), Ermelo (21), Zandvoort (26). Game 26 began on one day in Zandvoort, and was finished on a later day in Amsterdam.
  3. ^ Netherlands The Hague (1, 5, 9–10, 17–18, 25), Rotterdam (2, 7, 15–16, 23–24), Amsterdam (3–4, 12–13, 20–21), Haarlem (6), Leiden (8), Groningen (11), Zwolle (14), Eindhoven (19), Delft (22)

FIDE World Championships (1948–1990)

Anatoly Karpov, Max Euwe, and Max Euwe's wife Caro Bergman posing for a photo together. Karpov and Euwe are wearing business suits and ties, while Bergman is wearing a silken shirt and a pearl necklace.
From right to left: World Champion Anatoly Karpov, former World Champion and FIDE President Max Euwe, and Euwe's wife Caro Bergman. Photo taken in 1976.

In 1946, Alexander Alekhine died while still holding the title of World Chess Champion. The International Chess Federation (FIDE), which had been founded in 1924, had been attempting to directly participate in organizing the World Championship since at least 1935. By the late 1940s, around half of the plausible contenders for the World Championship were Soviet citizens, and in 1947, the Soviet Chess Federation joined FIDE after decades of declining to do so. FIDE based the 1948 World Chess Championship on the 1938 AVRO tournament that had been organized in part to select a challenger for Alekhine. The tournament ultimately featured five players, three of them Soviet citizens—including the winner, Mikhail Botvinnik. Botvinnik would go on to win or retain in four further championship matches. At the same time, FIDE established the rules for the championship going forward. It would be organized around a 3-year cycle, during which a series of Zonal and Interzonal tournaments would be held, with their highest-scoring performers invited to a Candidates Tournament. The winner of the this tournament would in turn play the champion in a match for the title. A defeated champion was entitled to a rematch the following year, after which the 3-year cycle would resume; Botvinnik benefited from this rule twice, in 1958 and 1961.[30]

With the exception of the American Bobby Fischer in 1972, Soviet citizens won every championship from 1948 until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. With the further exception of Viktor Korchnoi, who had defected from the USSR in 1976, each challenger was also a Soviet citizen. Following his victory, Fischer never played another game organized by FIDE. Disagreements between the two parties—including Fischer insisting on a format requiring the victor to get a certain number of wins, as opposed to the number of games in a match being fixed—led to his forfeiting the title in 1975. In the absence of a match, FIDE declared Anatoly Karpov, winner of the 1974 Candidates Tournament, to be the World Chess Champion by default.[31]

While the issue had played a role in Fischer's forfeit, FIDE ultimately did change the match format going forward, such that the first to win 6 games would be champion.[32] Under these rules, Karpov twice defended his title against Korchnoi. The next match—which began in September 1984 and featured the 21-year-old Garry Kasparov as Karpov's challenger—ultimately saw 48 games played over the span of five months, with neither player able to get to 6 wins. In an unprecedented step, FIDE president Florencio Campomanes stepped in and declared the match to have ended with no result. A new match, which would revert to having a set number of games, was to be played later in 1985. After nearly being knocked out early in 1984, Kasparov defeated Karpov in their rematch. Over the following decade, the two would play three more championship matches, with Kasparov narrowly retaining the title in each.[33]

FIDE World Championships (1948–1990)
Date Location Winner Score Runner-up Format Ref
1948† Netherlands The Hague (1–10),
Soviet Union Moscow (11–20) 		Soviet Union Mikhail Botvinnik 14‍–‍6[a] Soviet Union Vasily Smyslov Quintuple round-robin tournament with 5 players [34]
1951‡ Soviet Union Moscow Soviet Union Mikhail Botvinnik (2) 12‍–‍12 Soviet Union David Bronstein Best of 24 [35]
1954‡ Soviet Union Mikhail Botvinnik (3) 12‍–‍12 Soviet Union Vasily Smyslov [36]
1957 Soviet Union Vasily Smyslov 12½‍–‍9½ Soviet Union Mikhail Botvinnik [37]
1958 Soviet Union Mikhail Botvinnik (4) 12½‍–‍10½ Soviet Union Vasily Smyslov [37]
1960 Soviet Union Mikhail Tal 12½‍–‍8½ Soviet Union Mikhail Botvinnik [38]
1961 Soviet Union Mikhail Botvinnik (5) 13‍–‍8 Soviet Union Mikhail Tal [39]
1963 Soviet Union Tigran Petrosian 12½‍–‍9½ Soviet Union Mikhail Botvinnik [40]
1966 Soviet Union Tigran Petrosian (2) 12½‍–‍11½ Soviet Union Boris Spassky [41]
1969 Soviet Union Boris Spassky 12½‍–‍10½ Soviet Union Tigran Petrosian [42]
1972 Iceland Reykjavík United States Bobby Fischer 12½‍–‍8½ Soviet Union Boris Spassky [43]
1975# Philippines Manila Soviet Union Anatoly Karpov — United States Bobby Fischer [44]
1978 Philippines Baguio Soviet Union Anatoly Karpov (2) 16½‍–‍15½ FIDE Viktor Korchnoi First to 6 wins [45]
1981 Italy Merano Soviet Union Anatoly Karpov (3) 11‍–‍7 Switzerland Viktor Korchnoi [46]
1984–1985✻ Soviet Union Moscow Soviet Union Anatoly Karpov 25‍–‍23 Soviet Union Garry Kasparov [47]
1985 Soviet Union Garry Kasparov 13‍–‍11 Soviet Union Anatoly Karpov Best of 24 [48]
1986 Soviet Union Moscow (1–12),
United Kingdom London (13–24) 		Soviet Union Garry Kasparov (2) 12½‍–‍11½ Soviet Union Anatoly Karpov [49]
1987‡ Spain Seville Soviet Union Garry Kasparov (3) 12‍–‍12 Soviet Union Anatoly Karpov [50]
1990 United States New York City (1–12),
France Lyon (13–24) 		Russia Garry Kasparov (4) 12½‍–‍11½ Soviet Union Anatoly Karpov [51]
  1. ^ 3‍–‍2 Smyslov; 4‍–‍1 Keres; 3½‍–‍1½ Reshevsky; 3½‍–‍1½ Euwe

Split title (1993–2006)

Garry Kasparov and Viswanathan Anand both sitting down at a chessboard at the beginning of a game. Both men are wearing suits and ties. Behind them is a tall railing, and a view of most of Midtown Manhattan. Anand has the White pieces, and Kasparov has the Black pieces.
Play between Garry Kasparov (left) and Viswanathan Anand (right) in the Top of the World observation deck of 2 World Trade Center during the 1995 PCA World Chess Championship

In 1993, following Nigel Short's victory in the Candidates Tournament, FIDE president Campomanes announced that that year's Championship would take place in Manchester, England. Both Kasparov and Short claimed that FIDE had made this decision without consulting either player, in violation of FIDE's regulations regarding the championship. Kasparov and Short responded by splitting from FIDE and forming the Professional Chess Association (PCA),[52] which organized a World Championship match between the two, played in London later that year. Meanwhile, FIDE stripped Kasparov of his title and organized a championship match between Karpov and Jan Timman, who had finished second and third in the Candidates Tournament.[53] For the 13 years between 1993 and 2006, there were two rival titles. While the PCA itself would fold after only a couple of years, Kasparov would retain what is referred to as "Classical" title, which would be inherited by Vladimir Kramnik upon defeating Kasparov in 2000.[54]

Meanwhile, FIDE once again began experimenting with the championship format. Beginning with the 1998 championship, the system of Zonal, Interzonal, Candidates, and Championship stages was replaced with one single-elimination tournament featuring dozens of players competing for the championship. For the next event in 1999, the incumbent World Champion would not automatically qualify for the finals. Due to this additional change, Karpov—who had won three additional titles during the schism—declined to participate going forward. Each of the four Classical Championships retained a traditional match format.[55]

Classical World Chess Championships (1993–2006)
Date Location Winner Score Runner-up Format Ref
1993 United Kingdom London Russia Garry Kasparov (5) 12½‍–‍7½ England Nigel Short Best of 24 [56]
1995 United States New York City Russia Garry Kasparov (6) 10½‍–‍7½ India Viswanathan Anand Best of 20 [57]
2000 United Kingdom London Russia Vladimir Kramnik 8½‍–‍6½ Russia Garry Kasparov Best of 16 [58]
2004‡ Switzerland Brissago Russia Vladimir Kramnik (2) 7‍–‍7 Hungary Peter Leko Best of 14 [59]
FIDE World Chess Championships (1993–2006)
Date Location Winner Score Runner-up Format Ref
1993 Netherlands Zwolle (1–3), Arnhem (4–6), Amsterdam (7–12),
Indonesia Jakarta (13–24) 		Russia Anatoly Karpov (4) 12½‍–‍8½ Netherlands Jan Timman Best of 24 [60]
1996 Russia Elista Russia Anatoly Karpov (5) 10½‍–‍7½ United States Gata Kamsky Best of 20 [61]
1998† United Kingdom London Russia Anatoly Karpov (6) 3‍–‍3
2‍–‍0
[a] 		India Viswanathan Anand Single-elimination tournament with 100 players [62]
1999† United States Las Vegas Russia Alexander Khalifman 18½‍–‍11½
[b] 		Armenia Vladimir Akopian [63]
2000† India New Delhi (rounds 1–6),
Iran Tehran (round 7) 		India Viswanathan Anand 14‍–‍6
[c] 		Spain Alexei Shirov [64]
2002† Russia Moscow Ukraine Ruslan Ponomariov 19‍–‍9
[d] 		Ukraine Vasyl Ivanchuk Single-elimination tournament with 128 players [65]
2004† Libya Tripoli Uzbekistan Rustam Kasimdzhanov 20‍–‍10
[e] 		England Michael Adams [66]
2005† Argentina Potrero de los Funes Bulgaria Veselin Topalov 10‍–‍4
[f] 		India Viswanathan Anand Double round-robin tournament with 8 players [67]
  1. ^ Karpov was automatically seeded into the final round: a best of 6, with tie-breaks as needed.
  2. ^ 3½‍–‍2½ Barua; 2½‍–‍1½ Kamsky; 1½‍–‍½ Asrian; 2½‍–‍1½ Gelfand; 1½‍–‍½ Polgár; 3½‍–‍2½ Nisipeanu; 3½‍–‍2½ Akopian
  3. ^ Anand had a bye in the first round. 1½‍–‍½ Bologan; 1½‍–‍½ Lputian; 1½‍–‍½ Macieja; 3½‍–‍2½ Khalifman; 2½‍–‍1½ Adams; 3½‍–‍½ Shirov
  4. ^ 1½‍–‍½ Li; 3‍–‍1 Tiviakov; 2‍–‍0 Georgiev; 2½‍–‍1½ Morozevich; 3‍–‍1 Bareev; 2½‍–‍1½ Svidler; 4½‍–‍2½ Ivanchuk
  5. ^ 2½‍–‍1½ Ramírez; 1½‍–‍½ Ghaem Maghami; 2½‍–‍1½ Ivanchuk; 2‍–‍0 Almási; 3‍–‍1 Grischuk; 4‍–‍2 Topalov; 4½‍–‍3½ Adams
  6. ^ 1‍–‍1 Anand; 1½‍–‍½ Svidler; 1½‍–‍½ Morozevich; 1½‍–‍½ Leko; 1½‍–‍½ Kasimdzhanov; 1½‍–‍½ Adams; 1½‍–‍½ Polgár

FIDE World Championships (2006–present)

Ian Nepomniachtchi and Magnus Carlsen both sitting down at a chessboard during a game. Both men are wearing suits and ties. Both the table they are sitting at and the walls around them bear numerous logos of the event sponsors. Nepomniachtchi has the White pieces, and Carlsen has the Black pieces.
Ian Nepomniachtchi (left) and Magnus Carlsen (right) beginning game 11 of the 2021 Championship

Following a period of negotiation, in 2006 the Classical Champion Vladimir Kramnik played a match against the FIDE Champion Veselin Topalov to reunify the World Championship.[68] Since then, the championship has remained under the auspices of FIDE. The Candidates Tournament returned, and with the exception of the 2007 tournament, FIDE would return to a match format for the World Championship. Instead of the previous system of Zonals and Interzonals to provide candidates, the system was redesigned around the Chess World Cup.[69] Later, means for selecting candidates would variously include the FIDE Grand Prix, the FIDE Grand Swiss Tournament, selection by rating, and wild cards selected by the venue hosting the event.[70]

While shorter matches had taken place at various points, the block of 12 classical games was much shorter than matches had been for much of the 20th century. In the 2018 match, all 12 classical games resulted in draws for the first time in the history of the championship. Following this, the number of games was increased to 14.[71] Citing a lack of motivation and interest in the format, incumbent five-time champion Magnus Carlsen declined to defend his title in 2023.[72] Instead, the match featured the two best performers in the Candidates, with Ding Liren defeating Ian Nepomniachtchi to become the new World Champion. Carlsen later declined his spot in the 2024 Candidates Tournament.[73]

FIDE World Championships (2006–present)
Date Location Winner Score Runner-up Format Ref
2006 Russia Elista Russia Vladimir Kramnik (3) 6‍–‍6
2½‍–‍1½ 		Bulgaria Veselin Topalov Best of 12, tie-breaks if necessary [74]
2007† Mexico Mexico City India Viswanathan Anand (2) 9‍–‍5
[a] 		Russia Vladimir Kramnik Double round-robin tournament with 8 players [75]
2008 Germany Bonn India Viswanathan Anand (3) 6½‍–‍4½ Russia Vladimir Kramnik Best of 12, tie-breaks if necessary [76]
2010 Bulgaria Sofia India Viswanathan Anand (4) 6½‍–‍5½ Bulgaria Veselin Topalov [77]
2012 Russia Moscow India Viswanathan Anand (5) 6‍–‍6
2½‍–‍1½ 		Israel Boris Gelfand [78]
2013 India Chennai Norway Magnus Carlsen 6½‍–‍3½ India Viswanathan Anand [79]
2014 Russia Sochi Norway Magnus Carlsen (2) 6½‍–‍4½ India Viswanathan Anand [80]
2016 United States New York City Norway Magnus Carlsen (3) 6‍–‍6
3‍–‍1 		Russia Sergey Karjakin [81]
2018 United Kingdom London Norway Magnus Carlsen (4) 6‍–‍6
3‍–‍0 		United States Fabiano Caruana [82]
2021 United Arab Emirates Dubai Norway Magnus Carlsen (5) 7½‍–‍3½ Ian Nepomniachtchi Best of 14, tie-breaks if necessary [83]
2023 Kazakhstan Astana China Ding Liren 7‍–‍7
2½‍–‍1½ 		FIDE Ian Nepomniachtchi [84]
2024 TBA China Ding Liren vs. TBD [85]
  1. ^ 1‍–‍1 Kramnik; 1‍–‍1 Gelfand; 1‍–‍1 Leko; 1½‍–‍½ Svidler; 1½‍–‍½ Morozevich; 1½‍–‍½ Aronian; 1½‍–‍½ Grischuk

Unrecognized championship events

In 1909, amid discussions that would ultimately culminate with the World Championship match played the following year, Emanuel Lasker played a casual match with Dawid Janowski in Paris. This was reported in later decades as being a World Championship match.[86] However, research by Edward Winter has demonstrated that the title was not at stake.[87]

Unrecognized championship events
Date Location Winner Score Runner-up Format
1909 France Paris German Empire Emanuel Lasker 8‍–‍2 France Dawid Janowski Best of 10, casual play

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ Murray 1913, p. 405.
  2. ^ Murray 1913, pp. 774–779.
  3. ^ Murray 1913, p. 845.
  4. ^ Murray 1913, p. 883.
  5. ^ Pope, Nick. "1834 La Bourdonnais–Macdonnell Matches — Chess Archaeology". Chess Archaeology. Archived from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
    Capablanca 1977, p. 47; Sergeant 1934, p. 39, "Labourdonnais by his victory might fairly be entitled to call himself the leading player of the world"
  6. ^ Wall, Bill (16 August 2007). "Staunton Beats a Saint". Chess.com. Archived from the original on 5 February 2023. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
    Horowitz 1973, p. 3; Harding 2012, pp. 43–46
  7. ^ Horowitz 1973, p. 4; Staunton, Howard (1852). The Chess Tournament: A Collection of the Games Played at this Celebrated Assemblage, Illustrated by Copious Diagrams, and Notes, Critical and Explanatory. H. G. Bohn. OCLC 3561640. Archived from the original on 13 January 2024. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  8. ^ Lawson, David (2010). Aiello, Thomas (ed.). Paul Morphy, The Pride and Sorrow of Chess. University of Louisiana at Lafayette Press. p. 172. ISBN 978-1-887-36697-7.
    Horowitz 1973, pp. 5–6, 15–16
  9. ^ Horowitz 1973, p. 16; Löwenthal, Johann (1864). The Chess Congress of 1862: A Collection of the Games Played, and a Selection of the Problems Sent in for Competition. H.G. Bohn. OCLC 651260808. Archived from the original on 13 January 2024. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  10. ^ Murray 1913, p. 888; Capablanca 1977, p. 47.
  11. ^ "The International Tournament of 1883". Chess Player's Chronicle. 27 June 1883. p. 26. Archived from the original on 16 September 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
    Winter 2023a.
  12. ^ Winter 2023a.
  13. ^ Winter 1954, pp. 9–10.
  14. ^ Murray 1913, p. 889.
  15. ^ Kažić 1974, pp. 208–210.
  16. ^ Pope, Nick. "1890 Gunsberg-Steinitz World Championship Match". Chess Archaeology. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
  17. ^ Kažić 1974, pp. 208–211.
  18. ^ Pope, Nick. "1894 Lasker-Steinitz World Championship Match". Chess Archaeology. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
  19. ^ Kažić 1974, p. 213.
  20. ^ "The Championship Match". Free Press Prairie Farmer. 24 April 1907. p. 6. Archived from the original on 9 January 2024. Retrieved 9 January 2024 – via Newspapers.com.
  21. ^ Tarrasch, Siegbert (2021) [1908]. Der Schachwettkampf Lasker-Tarrasch um die Weltmeisterschaft im August-September 1908 [The Lasker–Tarrasch chess competition for the world championship in August–September 1908] (in German). De Gruyter. pp. 9–110. doi:10.1515/9783112515143. ISBN 978-3-112-51514-3. S2CID 244540032. Archived from the original on 11 January 2024. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
  22. ^ Kažić 1974, p. 216.
  23. ^ Kažić 1974, p. 217; Wilson 1975, p. 151.
  24. ^ Kažić 1974, pp. 217–218.
  25. ^ Kažić 1974, pp. 219–220.
  26. ^ Verhoeven & Skinner 1998, p. 364–371.
  27. ^ Verhoeven & Skinner 1998, p. 489-491.
  28. ^ Euwe, Max; Alekhine, Alexander (1973) [1936]. Smith, Ken (ed.). Euwe vs. Alekhine Match 1935. Translated by DeVault, Roy. Dallas, TX: Chess Digest. OCLC 3146006.
  29. ^ Botvinnik, Mikhail (1973) [1937]. Smith, Ken (ed.). Alekhine vs. Euwe Return Match 1937. Translated by DeVault, Roy. Dallas, TX: Chess Digest. OCLC 4395696.
  30. ^ Winter, Edward (2004). "Interregnum". chesshistory.com. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  31. ^ Plisetsky & Voronkov 1994, pp. 363–366.
  32. ^ Plisetsky & Voronkov 1994, p. 365.
  33. ^ Winter 1988.
  34. ^ Horowitz 1973, pp. 120–136; Kažić 1974, p. 224.
  35. ^ Kažić 1974, p. 225.
  36. ^ Kažić 1974, p. 226.
  37. ^ a b Kažić 1974, p. 227.
  38. ^ Kažić 1974, p. 228.
  39. ^ Kažić 1974, p. 229.
  40. ^ Kažić 1974, p. 230.
  41. ^ Kažić 1974, pp. 230–231.
  42. ^ Kažić 1974, p. 231.
  43. ^ Kažić 1974, pp. 232–241.
  44. ^ Plisetsky & Voronkov 1994, pp. 361–366.
  45. ^ Winter 1981, p. 169.
  46. ^ Calvo, R. (1981). Merano 1981 Karpov–Korchnoi: Lucha por el Campeonato del mundo de ajedrez (in Spanish). San Sebastián: Jaque. ISBN 978-8-430-06139-6.
  47. ^ Kasparov 2008, pp. 54–254; Winter 1988.
  48. ^ Kasparov 2008, pp. 277–419.
  49. ^ Kasparov 2009, pp. 21–237.
  50. ^ Kasparov 2009, pp. 238–428.
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Works cited

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