This list of genocides includes estimates of all deaths which were directly or indirectly caused by genocides that are recognised in significant scholarship as genocides in line with the legal definition of the 1948 UN Convention on Genocide. It excludes mass killings which have not been explicitly defined as genocidal, but called mass murder, crimes against humanity, politicide, classicide, or war crimes, such as the Thirty Years' War (4.5 to 8 million deaths), Japanese war crimes (30 million deaths), the Red Terror (50,000 to 200,000 deaths), the Atrocities in the Congo Free State (1.5 to 13 million deaths), the Great Purge (0.7 to 1.2 million deaths), the Great Leap Forward and the famine which followed it (15 to 55 million deaths).[1] A broader list of genocides, ethnic cleansing and related mass persecution is available. Genocides in history includes cases where there is less consensus among scholars as to whether they constituted genocide.

Definition

The United Nations Genocide Convention defines genocide as "any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; [and] forcibly transferring children of the group to another group".[2]

List of genocides

The term genocide is contentious and as a result its definition varies. This list only considers acts which are recognised in significant scholarship as genocides in line with the legal definition of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.

List of genocides in reverse chronological order
Event Location Period Estimated killings
From To Lowest Highest
Description Proportion of group killed
Rohingya genocide Rakhine State, Myanmar 2016 Present 9,000–13,700
[3] 		43,000
[4]
The Rohingya genocide[5][6][7][8] against the Rohingya ethnic minority in Myanmar (Burma) by the Myanmar military and Buddhist extremists. The violence began on 25 August 2017 and has continued since, reaching its peak during the months of August and September in 2017. The Rohingya people are a largely Muslim ethnic minority in Myanmar who have faced widespread persecution and discrimination for several decades. They are denied citizenship under the 1982 Myanmar nationality law, and are falsely regarded as Bengali immigrants by much of Myanmar's Bamar majority, to the extent that the government refuses to acknowledge the Rohingya's existence as a valid ethnic group.[9] The Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA) is a Rohingya insurgent group that was founded in 2013 to "liberate [the Rohingya] people from dehumanising oppression".[10] Before the 2015 Rohingya refugee crisis and the military crackdown in 2016 and 2017, the Rohingya population in Myanmar was around 1.0 to 1.3 million, chiefly in the northern Rakhine townships, which were 80–98% Rohingya. Since 2015, over 900,000 Rohingya refugees have fled to south-eastern Bangladesh alone, and more to other surrounding countries, and major Muslim nations. More than 100,000 Rohingyas in Myanmar are confined in camps for internally displaced persons.
Iraqi Turkmen genocide Islamic State-controlled territory in northern Iraq 2014 2017 3,500 8,400
The Iraqi Turkmen genocide refers to a series of killings, rapes, executions, expulsions, and sexual slavery of Iraqi Turkmen by the Islamic State.[11] It began when ISIS captured Iraqi Turkmen land in 2014 and it continued until ISIS lost all of their land in Iraq. In 2017, ISIS's persecution of Iraqi Turkmen was officially recognized as a genocide by the Parliament of Iraq,[12][13] and in 2018, the sexual slavery of Iraqi Turkmen girls and women was recognized by the United Nations.[14][15]
Genocide of Yazidis by the Islamic State Islamic State-controlled territory in northern Iraq and Syria 2014 2019 2,100
[16] 		5,000
[17]
The Genocide of Yazidis by ISIS included mass killing, rape and enslavement of girls and women, forced abduction, indoctrination and recruitment of Yazidis boys (aged 7 to 15) to be used in armed conflicts, forced conversion to Islam and expulsion from their ancestral land. The United Nations' Commission of Inquiry on Syria officially declared in its report that ISIS was committing genocide against the Yazidis population.[18] It is difficult to assess a precise figure for the killings[19] but it is known that some thousand of Yazidis men and boys were still unaccounted for and ISIS genocidal actions against Yazidis people were still ongoing, as stated by the International Commission in June 2016.
See also: 2007 Yazidi communities bombings.
Darfur genocide Darfur, Sudan 2003 Present 98,000
[20] 		500,000
[21]
The Darfur genocide refer to the war crimes and crimes against humanity such as massacre and genocidal rape that occurred within the Darfur region during the War in Darfur perpetrated by Janjaweed militias and the Sudanese government. These atrocities have been called the first genocide of the 21st century.[22] Sudan's president Omar al-Bashir has been indicted for his role in the genocide by the United Nations.[23]
Effacer le tableau North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo 2002 2003 60,000
[24][25] 		70,000
[24]
Effacer le tableau ("erasing the board") is the operational name given to the systematic extermination of the Bambuti pygmies by rebel forces in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The primary objective of Effacer le tableau was the territorial conquest of the North Kivu province of the DRC and ethnic cleansing of Pygmies from the Congo's eastern region whose population numbered 90,000 by 2004.[25][26] 40% of the Eastern Congo's Pygmy population killed[N 1]
Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War Kivu, Zaire (now the DRC) 1996 1997 200,000[27] 233,000[27]
During the First Congo War, troops of the Rwanda-backed Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre (AFDL) attacked refugee camps in Eastern DRC, home to 527,000 and 718,000 Hutu refugees in South-Kivu and North-Kivu respectively.[28] Elements of the AFDL and, more so, of the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA) systematically shelled numerous camps and committed massacres with light weapons. These early attacks cost the lives of 6,800–8,000 refugees and forced the repatriation of 500,000 – 700,000 refugees back to Rwanda.[29]

As survivors fled westward of the DRC, the AFDL units hunted them down and attacked their makeshift camps, killing thousands more.[28] These attacks and killings continued to intensify as refugees moved westward as far as 1,800 km away. The report of the United Nations Joint Commission reported 134 sites where such atrocities were committed. On 8 July 1997, the acting UN High Commissioner for Human Rights stated that "about 200,000 Hutu refugees could well have been massacred".[28]

Rwandan genocide Rwanda 1994 491,000
[30] 		800,000
[31]
The Rwandan genocide, also known as the genocide against the Tutsi, occurred between 7 April and 19 July 1994 during the Rwandan Civil War.[32][30][33] During this period of around 100 days, members of the Tutsi minority ethnic group, as well as some moderate Hutu and Twa, were killed by armed Hutu militias. Although the Constitution of Rwanda states that more than 1 million people perished in the genocide, the actual number of fatalities is unclear, and some estimates suggest that the real number killed was likely lower.[33][34][35] The most widely accepted scholarly estimates are around 500,000 to 800,000 Tutsi deaths.[36] It is recognised by the international community as a genocide. 60–70% of Tutsis in Rwanda killed[30]
7% of Rwanda's total population killed[30]
Bosnian genocide Bosnia and Herzegovina 1992 1995 31,107[37] 62,013[37]
The Bosnian genocide comprises localised, in time and place, massacres like in Srebrenica[38] and in Žepa committed by Bosnian Serb forces in 1995, as well as the scattered ethnic cleansing campaign throughout areas controlled by the Army of Republika Srpska[39] during the 1992–95 Bosnian War.[40] On 31 March 2010, the Serbian Parliament passed a resolution condemning the Srebrenica massacre and apologising to the families of Srebrenica for the deaths of Bosniaks ("Bosnian Muslims").[41] More than 3% of the Bosniak population of Bosnia and Herzegovina died during the Bosnian War.[42]
Isaaq genocide Somaliland, Somalia 1987 1989 50,000
[43][44] 		200,000
[45]
The Genocide of Isaaqs or "Hargeisa Holocaust"[46][47] was the systematic, state-sponsored massacre of Isaaq civilians between 1988 and 1991 by the Somali Democratic Republic under the dictatorship of Siad Barre.[48] The number of civilian deaths in this massacre is estimated to be between 50,000 and 100,000 according to various sources,[49][50][44] while local reports estimate the total civilian deaths to be upwards of 200,000 Isaaq civilians.[51] This included the leveling and complete destruction of the second and third largest cities in Somalia, Hargeisa (90 per cent destroyed)[52] and Burao (70 per cent destroyed) respectively,[53] and had caused 400,000[54][55] Somalis (primarily of the Isaaq clan) to flee their land and cross the border to Hartasheikh in Ethiopia as refugees, creating the world's largest refugee camp then (1988),[56] with another 400,000 being internally displaced.[54][57][58] In 2001, the United Nations commissioned an investigation on past human rights violations in Somalia,[48] specifically to find out if "crimes of international jurisdiction (i.e. war crimes, crimes against humanity or genocide) had been perpetrated during the country's civil war". The investigation was commissioned jointly by the United Nations Co-ordination Unit (UNCU) and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. The investigation concluded with a report confirming the crime of genocide to have taken place against the Isaaqs in Somalia.[48]
Anfal genocide Kurdistan Region during Ba'athist Iraq 1986 1989 50,000
[59] 		182,000
[60]
On 5 December 2012, Sweden's parliament, the Riksdag, adopted a resolution by the Green party to officially recognise Anfal as genocide. The resolution was passed by all 349 members of parliament.[61][disputed – discuss] On 28 February 2013, the British House of Commons formally recognised the Anfal as genocide following a campaign led by Conservative MP Nadhim Zahawi, who is of Kurdish descent.[62] South Korea recognised the Anfal as genocide on June 13 of 2013.[63]
Gukurahundi Matabeleland, Zimbabwe 1983 1987 8,000
[64] 		300,000
[65]
The Gukurahundi, the systematic massacre of the Ndebele people by Robert Mugabe's ZANU-PF party, is classified as a genocide by the International Association of Genocide Scholars.[66] The Gukurahundi was initiated because the ZAPU party, the main Zimbabwean opposition party, found the majority of its support among the Ndebele people, leading Mugabe to conclude that they must be exterminated in order to eliminate support for the ZAPU.[67] The Gukurahundi was initiated in 1983, and continued until the signing of the 1987 Unity Accords, during which time about 20, 000 Ndebele were killed and sent to re-education camps.
Sabra and Shatila massacre Beirut, Lebanon 1982 1982 460[68] 3,500[69]
The Sabra and Shatila massacre was the slaughter of Palestinian and Lebanese Shia civilians by the Lebanese Forces militia, with the collusion of the Israel Defense Forces, in Beirut during the Lebanese Civil War. Both the United Nations and an independent commission headed by Seán MacBride concluded that the massacre was an act of genocide against the Palestinian people,[70][71] a conclusion concurred with by NGOs such as the Palestinian Return Centre.[72] Human rights scholars Damien Short and Haifa Rashed also described the massacre as genocidal in nature.[73]
Cambodian genocide Democratic Kampuchea, Cambodia 1975 1979 1,386,734
[74][75] 		3,000,000
[76][77]
The Cambodian genocide is the commonly used term for the atrocities of the Khmer Rouge led by Pol Pot[78] that forced the urban population to relocate savagely to the countryside, among torture, mass executions, forced labour, and starvation.[79][80][76] Up to 20,000 mass graves, the infamous Killing Fields, were uncovered,[81] where at least 1,386,734 murdered victims found their final resting place.[82] The Khmer Rouge Tribunal found that targeting of Vietnamese and Cham minorities constituted a genocide under the UN Convention.[83][84])) 15–33% of total population of Cambodia killed[85][86] including:

99% of Cambodian Viets
50% of Cambodian Chinese and Cham
40% of Cambodian Lao and Thai
25% of Urban Khmer
16% of Rural Khmer

East Timor genocide East Timor, Indonesia 1974 1999 85,320
[87] 		196,720
[88]
The East Timor genocide refers to the "pacification campaigns" of state sponsored terror by the Indonesian government during their occupation of East Timor. Oxford University held an academic consensus calling the Indonesian Occupation of East Timor genocide and Yale university teaches it as part of their "Genocide Studies" program.[89][90] Precise estimates of the death toll are difficult to determine. The 2005 report of the UN's Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR) reports an estimated minimum number of conflict-related deaths of 102,800 (+/− 12,000). Of these, the report says that approximately 18,600 (+/− 1,000) were either killed or disappeared, and that approximately 84,000 (+/− 11,000) died from hunger or illness in excess of what would have been expected due to peacetime mortality. These figures represent a minimum conservative estimate that CAVR says is its scientifically-based principal finding. The report did not provide an upper bound, however, CAVR speculated that the total number of deaths due to conflict-related hunger and illness could have been as high as 183,000.[91] The truth commission held Indonesian forces responsible for about 70% of the violent killings.[92] 13% to 44% of East Timor's total population killed
(See death toll of East Timor genocide)
Genocide of Acholi and Lango people under Idi Amin Uganda 1972 1978 100,000
[93] 		300,000
[93]
After Idi Amin Dada overthrow the regime of Milton Obote in 1971, he declared the Acholi and Lango tribes enemies, as Obote was a Lango and he saw the fact that they dominated the army as a threat.[93]

In January 1972, Amin issued an order to the Ugandan army ordering that they assemble and kill all Acholi or Lango soldiers, and then commanded that all Acholi and Lango be rounded up and confined within army barracks, where they were either slaughtered by the soldiers or killed when the Ugandan air force bombed the barracks.[93]

Ikiza Burundi 1972 80,000
[94][95] 		300,000
[96]
During the long sequence of civil fights that occurred between Tutsi and Hutu since Burundi's independence in 1962, the 1972 mass killings of Hutu by the Tutsi and the 1993 mass killings of Tutsis by the majority-Hutu populace are both described as genocide in the final report of the International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi presented to the United Nations Security Council in 1996. As much as 10% to 15% of the Hutu population of Burundi killed[96]
Bangladesh genocide East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) 1971 300,000
[97] 		3,000,000
[98][99]
The Bangladesh Genocide were the massacres, killings, rape, arson and systematic elimination of religious minorities (particularly Hindus), political dissidents and the members of the liberation forces of Bangladesh were conducted by the Pakistan Army with support from paramilitary militias—the Razakars, Al-Badr and Al-Shams—formed by the radical Islamist Jamaat-e-Islami party.[100] Although Bengali Hindus were specifically targeted, the majority of victims were Muslim.[101] 2%[citation needed] to 4% of the population of East Pakistan[102]
Zanzibar genocide Zanzibar (now part of Tanzania) 1964 1964 13,000
[103] 		20,000+
[104]
The Zanzibar genocide took place in January 1964 during and following the Zanzibar Revolution. The Arab community of Zanzibar was the target group.[105] Arabs were mass murdered, raped, tortured and deported from the island by Black African militiamen under the Afro-Shirazi Party and Umma Party. The exact death toll is unknown, although scholarly sources estimate the number of Arabs killed to be between 13,000 and over 20,000 killed.[103][104] 25% or more of the Arab population (50,000 people) of Zanzibar was killed by the end of 1964 due to expulsion, flight or mass murder.[103]
Guatemalan genocide Guatemala 1962 1996 166,000
[106] 		166,000
[107]
The government forces of Guatemala and allied paramilitary groups have been condemned by the Historical Clarification Commission for committing genocide against the Maya population[108][109] and for widespread human rights violations against civilians during the civil war fought against various leftist rebel groups. At least an estimated 200,000 persons died by arbitrary executions, forced disappearances and other human rights violations.[110] A quarter of the direct victims of human rights violations and acts of violence were women.[111] 40% of the Maya population (24,000 people) of Guatemala's Ixil and Rabinal regions were killed[citation needed]
Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush Soviet Union (now Russia) 1944 1948 100,000
[112] 		400,000
[113]
Aardakh also known as Operation Lentil (Russian: Чечевица, Chechevitsa; Chechen: Вайнах махкахбахар, Vaynax Maxkaxbaxar) was the Soviet expulsion of the whole of the Vainakh (Chechen and Ingush) populations of the North Caucasus to Central Asia during World War II. The expulsion, preceded by the 1940–1944 insurgency in Chechnya, was ordered on 23 February 1944 by NKVD chief Lavrentiy Beria after approval by Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin, as a part of Soviet forced settlement program and population transfer that affected several million members of non-Russian Soviet ethnic minorities between the 1930s and the 1950s.
The deportation encompassed their entire nations, well over 500,000 people, as well as the complete liquidation of the Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Hundreds of thousands[114][page needed][115][116]

[117] of Chechens and Ingushes died or were killed during the round-ups and transportation, and during their early years in exile. The survivors would not return to their native lands until 1957. Many in Chechnya and Ingushetia classify it as an act of genocide, as did the European Parliament in 2004.[118][119]

23.5% to almost 50% of total Chechen population killed[120]

[114][page needed][115][116][121]

Deportation of the Crimean Tatars Crimea, Soviet Union (now Ukraine) 1944 1948 (denied right to return until 1989) 34,000
[122] 		195,471
[123]
The deportation of the Crimean Tatars (Crimean Tatar: Qırımtatar halqınıñ sürgünligi; Ukrainian: Депортація кримських татар; Russian: Депортация крымских татар) was the ethnic cleansing of at least 191,044 Crimean Tatars[N 2] in 18–20 May 1944. The Crimean Tartars were one of the ten ethnicities who were encompassed by Stalin's policy of population transfer in the Soviet Union. The deportation is recognised as a genocide by the countries of Ukraine, Latvia, Lithuania, and Canada respectively; as well as various scholars. Professor Lyman H. Legters argued that the Soviet penal system, combined with its resettlement policies, should count as genocidal since the sentences were borne most heavily specifically on certain ethnic groups, and that a relocation of these ethnic groups, whose survival depends on ties to its particular homeland, "had a genocidal effect remediable only by restoration of the group to its homeland".[124] Soviet dissidents Ilya Gabay[125] and Pyotr Grigorenko[126] both classified the event as a genocide. Historian Timothy Snyder included it in a list of Soviet policies that "meet the standard of genocide."[127] The deportation and following exile reduced the Crimean Tatar population by between 18%[122] and 46%.[128][N 3]
The Holocaust Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe 1941 1945 5,100,000
[130][131][132][133][134] 		7,000,000
[135][136]
The Holocaust was the systematic murder of around six million Jews between 1941 to 1945.[137][138] Initially it was carried out in German-occupied Eastern Europe by special paramilitary death squads (Einsatzgruppen) by shooting or, less frequently, using ad hoc built gassing vans, and later in extermination camps by gassing.[139] The Holocaust is considered to be the single largest genocide in history.[140][141] Over three million Jews were killed in 1942 alone, with two million from July to October,[142] and nearly one and half million in just 100 days from late July to early November,[143] the fastest rate of genocidal killing in history.[144] Around 2/3 of the Jewish population of Europe.[145][146]
German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war,[147][148] part of the Generalplan Ost and Hunger Plan German-occupied Europe 1941 1945 3,300,000
[149][150] 		3,500,000
[150]
During World War II, Nazi Germany engaged in a policy of deliberate maltreatment of Soviet prisoners of war (POWs), in contrast to their treatment of British and American POWs. This policy, which amounted to deliberately starving and working to death Soviet POWs, was grounded in Nazi racial theory, which depicted Slavs as sub-humans (Untermenschen).[151][148]
The Holocaust in Croatia including the Genocide of Serbs Independent State of Croatia
(now Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia) 		1941 1945 248,000
[152][153][154][N 4] 		548,000
[152][154][153][N 4]
Genocide by the Ustaše including the Serbian Genocide. German-Italian installed puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia murdered Serbs, Jews, Romani, and anti-Ustashe Croats and Bosniaks inside its borders, many in concentration camps, most notably Jasenovac camp. Ante Pavelić, the leader of the Ustaše, enacted racial laws similar to those of Nazi Germany, declaring Jews, Romani, and Serbs "enemies of the people of Croatia". He escaped to Spain after the war with the assistance of the Roman Catholic Church and fatally injured there some years later in an assassination attempt.[155]
Genocide against Bosniaks and Croats by the Chetniks Occupied Yugoslavia
(now Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro) 		1941 1945 50,000
[156] 		68,000
[156]
Genocidal massacres and ethnic cleansing of ethnic Muslims and Croats by Yugoslav royalists and nationalists Chetniks across large areas of Occupied Yugoslavia (modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia) during World War II in Yugoslavia, on the basis of creating a post-war Greater Serbia.[157][158][159][160] The Moljević plan ("On Our State and Its Borders") and the 1941 'Instructions' issued by Chetnik leader, Draža Mihailović, advocated for the cleansing of non-Serbs. Death toll by ethnicity is estimated to be between 18,000 and 32,000 Croats and between 29,000 and 33,000 Muslims.[156]
Nazi crimes against the Polish nation,[161][162] part of the Generalplan Ost German-occupied Europe 1939 1945 1,800,000
[163] 		3,000,000
[164][165]
From 6% to 10% (1.8 to 3 million) of the total Polish gentile population.[165] In addition, 3 million Polish Jews were killed during the Holocaust in Poland (90% of Polish Jews).[163]
Polish Operation of the NKVD Soviet Union (now Ukraine, Belarus and Russia) 1937 1938 111,091
[166] 		250,000
[167]
The Polish Operation of the NKVD was a mass murder specifically aimed at the Polish ethnic group in the USSR by the orders of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. Historian Michael Ellman asserts that the 'national operations', particularly the 'Polish operation', may constitute genocide as defined by the UN convention.[168] His opinion is shared by Simon Sebag Montefiore, who calls the Polish operation of the NKVD 'a mini-genocide.'[169] Historian Timothy Snyder called the Polish Operation genocidal: "It is hard not to see the Soviet "Polish Operation" of 1937–38 as genocidal, as more than 100,000 innocent people were killed on the spurious grounds that theirs was a disloyal ethnicity and since Stalin spoke of "Polish filth"."[170] Norman Naimark called Stalin's policy towards Poles in the 1930s "genocidal"[171] but did not consider the entire Great Purge genocidal since it targeted political opponents as well.[171] 22% of the Polish population of the USSR was "sentenced" by the operation (140,000 people)[172]
Parsley massacre Dominican Republic 1937 1937 12,000 40,000[173]
The Parsley massacre was the 1937 mass killing of Haitians in the Dominican Republic on the direct orders of President Rafael Trujillo in order to cleanse Dominica of Haitian migration. After reports of Haitians stealing crops from Dominican residents along the Northern border, Trujillo gave the order to his troops to exterminate all Haitians living in the country's Northern region. The Dominican army then interrogated thousands of civilians demanding that each victim say the word "parsley". If the accused could not pronounce the word to the interrogators satisfaction, they were deemed to be Haitians and shot.[174] These armed forces killed Haitians with rifles, machetes, shovels, knives, and bayonets. Haitian children were reportedly thrown in the air and caught by soldiers' bayonets, then thrown on their mothers' corpses.[175] Some died while trying to flee to Haiti across the Artibonite River, which has often been the site of bloody conflict between the two nations.[176] Survivors who managed to cross the border and return to Haiti told stories of family members being hacked with machetes and strangled by the soldiers, and children bashed against rocks and tree trunks.[177] The use of military units from outside the region was not always enough to expedite soldiers' killings of Haitians. U.S. legation informants reported that many soldiers "confessed that in order to perform such ghastly slaughter they had to get 'blind' drunk."[178]: 167  Several months later, a barrage of killings and repatriations of Haitians occurred in the southern frontier. Details of the casualties are still hard to gather.
Romani Holocaust German-occupied Europe 1939[179] 1945 130,000
[180] 		1,500,000[181][182]
Porajmos (Romani pronunciation: IPA: [pʰoɽajˈmos]), or Samudaripen ("Mass killing"), the Romani genocide or Romani Holocaust, was the planned and attempted effort by the government of Nazi Germany and its allies to exterminate part of the Romani people of Europe. On 26 November 1935, a supplementary decree to the Nuremberg Laws stripping Jews of their German citizenship expanded the category "enemies of the race-based state" to include Romani, the same category as the Jews, and in some ways they had similar fates.[183][184] 25% to 80% of Romani people in Europe killed
Holodomor Ukraine and the heavily Ukrainian-populated northern Kuban,[185] in the Soviet Union 1932 1933 3,000,000[186] 5,000,000[186]
The Holodomor also known as the Ukrainian Famine was a man-made famine in Soviet Ukraine from 1932 to 1933 that killed millions of Ukrainians. The Holodomor was part of the wider Soviet famine of 1930–1933 which affected the major grain-producing areas of the Soviet Union.

While scholars are in consensus that the cause of the famine was man-made,[187] whether or not the Holodomor was intentional and therefore constitutes a genocide under the Genocide Convention is debated by scholalrs.[188][189]

In the Ukrainian SSR, an estimated 3–3.5 million people died of starvation and disease (from malnutrition), with total demographic losses, including famine-derived decrease in fertility, 4.5–4.8 million.[190] Total population was about 32.3 million in 1932. Whether or not the Holodomor was intentional and therefore constitutes a genocide under the Genocide Convention is debated by scholalrs, see Holodomor genocide question.
Libyan genocide Italian Libya (now Libya) 1929 1932 83,000
[191] 		125,000+
[192]
The Libyan genocide,[193][194][195][191] also known as the Pacification of Libya[196] or Second Italo-Senussi War,[197] was a prolonged conflict in Italian Libya between Italian military forces and indigenous rebels associated with the Senussi Order that lasted from 1923 until 1932,[198][199] when the principal Senussi leader, Omar Mukhtar, was captured and executed.[200] The pacification resulted in mass deaths of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica—one quarter of Cyrenaica's population of 225,000 people died during the conflict.[193] Italy committed major war crimes during the conflict; including the use of chemical weapons, episodes of refusing to take prisoners of war and instead executing surrendering combatants, and mass executions of civilians.[191] Italian authorities committed ethnic cleansing by forcibly expelling 100,000 Bedouin Cyrenaicans, half the population of Cyrenaica, from their settlements that were slated to be given to Italian settlers.[196][201] Italy apologized in 2008 for its killing, destruction and repression of the Libyan people during the period of colonial rule, and went on to say that this was a "complete and moral acknowledgement of the damage inflicted on Libya by Italy during the colonial era."[202] 25% of Cyrenaican population killed[191] and half of the nomadic Bedouin population of Libya killed.[203]
Osage Indian murders Oklahoma, United States 1918 1931 60

[204]

200+

[205]

The Osage Indian murders was a plot by William King Hale and others to kill full-blood Osage to gain the mineral rights for their reservation. The events have been characterized as a genocide due to the intentions of its perpetrators to destroy the Osage nation.[206][207][208][209][210] Estimates vary widely, with 10% of 591 full-blood Osage being killed with the lowest estimate.[211]
Armenian genocide Ottoman Empire (now Turkey, Syria and Iraq) 1915 1917 600,000
[212] 		1,500,000
[213]
Approximately 90% of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire were killed or expelled.[214] The share of Christians in area within Turkey's current borders declined from 20-22% in 1914, or about 3.3.–3.6 million people, to around 3% in 1927.[215]
Assyrian genocide Ottoman Empire (now Turkey, Syria and Iraq) 1915 1919 200,000
[216] 		750,000
[217]
The Armenian genocide,[218][219] carried out by the Young Turks, included massacres, forced deportations involving death marches, and mass starvation. It occurred concurrently with the Assyrian and Greek genocides; some scholars consider these to form a broader genocide targeting all of the Christians in Anatolia.[220][221] Overall, about 2 million Christians were killed in Anatolia between 1894 and 1924, 40 percent of the original population.[222]
Greek genocide
Pontic genocide 		Ottoman Empire (now Turkey) 1914 1922 300,000
[223] 		900,000
[224]
For the Greek genocide other sources give 500,000–1,200,000 casualties between Pontic, Cappadocian and Ionians Greeks. The genocide, instigated by the Ottoman government, included massacres, forced deportations involving death marches, summary expulsions, arbitrary executions, and destruction of Greek Orthodox cultural, historical and religious monuments. At least 25% of Greeks in Anatolia (Turkey) killed [citation needed]
Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars Ottoman Empire - Scutari vilayet, Kosovo vilayet, Manastir vilayet (now Albania, Montenegro, Serbia, Kosovo, and North Macedonia) 1912 1913 120,000[225][226] 270,000[227]
Herero and Nama genocide German South West Africa (now Namibia) 1904 1908 34,000
[228] 		110,000
[229][230]
The Genocide in German South West Africa was the campaign to exterminate the Herero and Nama people that the German Empire undertook in German South-West Africa (modern-day Namibia). It is considered one of the first genocides of the 20th century. 60% (24,000 out of 40,000[228]) to 81.25% (65,000[231][232] out of 80,000[233]) of total Herero and 50%[228] of Nama population killed.
Armenian massacres of 1894–1896 Ottoman Empire, Six Vilayets (now Turkey) 1894 1896 200,000
[234] 		300,000
[234]
The Hamidian massacres (Armenian: Համիդյան ջարդեր, Turkish: Hamidiye Katliamı, French: Massacres hamidiens), also referred to as the Armenian Massacres of 1894–1896[235] and Armenian genocide,[235] were massacres of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire that took place in the mid-1890s. It was estimated casualties ranged from 80,000 to 300,000,[236] resulting in 50,000 orphaned children.[237] The massacres are named after Sultan Abdul Hamid II, who, in his efforts to maintain the imperial domain of the collapsing Ottoman Empire, reasserted Pan-Islamism as a state ideology.[234] Although the massacres were aimed mainly at the Armenians, they turned into indiscriminate anti-Christian pogroms in some cases, such as the Diyarbekir massacre, where, at least according to one contemporary source, up to 25,000 Assyrians were also killed.[238]

The massacres began in the Ottoman interior in 1894, before becoming more widespread in the following years. Between 1894 and 1896 was when the majority of the murders took place. The massacres began tapering off in 1897, following international condemnation of Abdul Hamid. The harshest measures were directed against the long persecuted Armenian community as calls for civil reform and better treatment from the government went ignored. The Ottomans made no allowances for the victims' age or gender, and massacred all with brutal force.[239] This occurred at a time when the telegraph could spread news around the world, and the massacres received extensive coverage in the media of Western Europe and North America.

Selk'nam genocide Tierra del Fuego, Chile, Argentina 1880 1910 2,500
[240] 		4,000
[241]
The Selk'nam Genocide was the genocide of the Selk'nam people, indigenous inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego in South America, from the second half of the 19th to the early 20th century. Spanning a period of between ten and fifteen years the Selk'nam, which had an estimated population of between three and four thousand, saw their numbers reduced to 500.[240] 84%
The genocide reduced their numbers from around 3,000 to about 500 people.[242][243]
Putumayo genocide Area between the Putumayo River and the Caquetá River administered by the Peruvian Amazon Company, today part of Putumayo Department, Colombia 1879 1913 32,000[244] 40,000+[245][246]
80-86% of the total population in the Putumayo region perished during the Amazon rubber boom.[247][N 5] Members of the Huitoto, Andoques, Yaguas, Ocaina and Boras groups were hunted and enslaved so they could be used to extract latex.[249] During this time period, several tribes became extinct.[250]
Circassian genocide Russian Empire-occupied Circassia 1864[N 6] 1867 1,000,000
[251] 		2,000,000
[252]
[253]

The Circassian genocide refers to the ethnic cleansing, massive annihilation, displacement,[254] destruction and expulsion of the majority of the indigenous Circassians from historical Circassia, which roughly encompassed the major part of the North Caucasus and the northeast shore of the Black Sea. This occurred in the aftermath of the Caucasian War in the last quarter of the 19th century.[255] The displaced people moved primarily to the Ottoman Empire. Former Russian President Boris Yeltsin's May 1994 statement admitted that resistance to the tsarist forces was legitimate, but he did not recognise "the guilt of the tsarist government for the genocide."[256] In 1997 and 1998, the leaders of Kabardino-Balkaria and of Adygea sent appeals to the Duma to reconsider the situation and to issue the needed apology; to date, there has been no response from Moscow. In October 2006, the Adygeyan public organizations of Russia, Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Syria, the United States, Belgium, Canada and Germany have sent the president of the European Parliament a letter with the request to recognise the genocide against Adygean (Circassian) people.[257] Following a consultation with academics, human rights activists and Circassian diaspora groups and parliamentary discussions in Tbilisi in 2010 and 2011, Georgia became the first country to use the word "genocide" to refer to the events.[258][259][260] On 20 May 2011 the parliament of the Republic of Georgia declared in its resolution[261] that the mass annihilation of the Cherkess (Adyghe) people during the Russian-Caucasian war and thereafter constituted genocide as defined in the Hague Convention of 1907 and the UN Convention of 1948.

95%–97% of total Circassian population killed or deported by the forces of Tsarist Russia.[262][263] Only a small percentage who accepted to convert to Christianity, Russify and resettle within the Russian Empire were spared. The remaining Circassian populations who refused were thus forcefully dispersed, deported or killed. Today, most Circassians live in exile.[264]
California genocide California, United States 1846 1873 9,492–16,094
[265][266][N 7] 		120,000
[266][N 8]
The California genocide[265][266] refers to the destruction of individual tribes like the Yuki people during the Round Valley Settler Massacres of 1856–1859,[267] general massacres perpetrated by settlers chasing the gold rush against Indians like the Bloodsland massacre, or Klamath River "War of Extermination"[268] along with the overall decline of the Indian population of California due to disease and starvation exacerbated by the massacres. Amerindian population in California declined by 80% during the period
Queensland Aboriginal genocide Queensland

1840

1897

10,000
[269] 		65,180
[270]
Queensland represents the single bloodiest colonial frontier in Australia. Thus the records of Queensland document the most frequent reports of shootings and massacres of indigenous people, the three deadliest massacres on white settlers, the most disreputable frontier police force, and the highest number of white victims to frontier violence on record in any Australian colony.[271] Thus some sources have characterized these events as a Queensland Aboriginal genocide.[272][273][274][269] 3.3% to over 50% of the aboriginal population was killed
(10,000[269] to 65,180[270] killed out of 125,600)[clarification needed]
Moriori genocide Chatham Islands, New Zealand 1835 1863 1,900
[275][276] 		1,900
The genocide of the Moriori began in the fall of 1835. The invasions of the Chatham Islands by Maori from New Zealand left the Moriori people and their culture to die off. Those who survived were either kept as slaves or eaten and Moriori were not sanctioned to marry other Moriori or have children within their race. This caused their people and their language to be endangered. There were only 101 Moriori people left out of 2000 who had survived in 1863.[277] 95% of the Moriori population was eradicated by the invasion from Taranaki, a group of people from the Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama iwi.[278][279] All were enslaved and many were cannibalised.[280] The Moriori language is now extinct.[277][281]
Massacre of Salsipuedes Uruguay 1831 1831 40
[282] 		40
[283][284]
Trail of Tears Southeastern United States and Indian Territory 1830 1850 12,000[285] 16,000[285]
The Trail of Tears was the forced displacement of approximately 60,000 people of the "Five Civilized Tribes" between 1830 and 1850, and the additional thousands of Native Americans within that were ethnically cleansed by the United States government.[286] A variety of scholars have classified the Trail of Tears as either a genocide in and of itself,[N 9] or as a genocidal act within the broader genocide of Native Americans.[293][N 10] Figures for the number of deaths per Native American group that was forcibly relocated can be found at Trail of Tears § Statistics.
Black War
(Genocide of Aboriginal Tasmanians) 		Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania) Mid 1820s 1832 400
[308] 		1,000
[308]
The extinction of Aboriginal Tasmanians was called an archetypal case of genocide by Rafael Lemkin[309] (coiner of the word genocide) among other historians, a view supported by more recent genocide scholars like Ben Kiernan who covered it in his book Blood and Soil: A History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur. This extinction also includes the Black War, which would make the war an act of genocide.[310] Historians like Keith Windschuttle among other historians disagree with this interpretation in discourse known as the History wars. ~100%[310]
1804 Haiti massacre Haiti 1804 1804 3,000
[311] 		5,000
[311]
The 1804 Haiti massacre is considered to be a genocide by many scholars,[312][313] as it was intended to destroy the Franco-Haitian population following the Haitian Revolution. The massacre was ordered by King Jean-Jacques Dessalines to remove the remainder of the white population from Haiti, and lasted from January to 22 April 1804. During the massacre, entire families were tortured and killed, and by the end of it, Haiti's white population was virtually non-existent.[314][315]
Dzungar genocide Dzungaria, during Qing-dynasty
(now China) 		1755 1758 480,000
[316] 		600,000
[316]
The Manchu Qianlong Emperor of Qing China issued his orders for his Manchu Bannermen to carry out the genocide and eradication of the Dzungar nation, ordering the massacre of all the Dzungar men and enslaving Dzungar women and children.[317] The Qianlong Emperor moved the remaining Zunghar people to the mainland and ordered the generals to kill all the men in Barkol or Suzhou, and divided their wives and children to Qing soldiers.[318][319] The Qing soldiers who massacred the Dzungars were Manchu Bannermen and Khalkha Mongols. In an account of the war, Wei Yuan wrote that about 40% of the Dzungar households were killed by smallpox, 20% fled to Russia or the Kazakh Khanate, and 30% were killed by the army, leaving no yurts in an area of several thousands of Chinese miles except those of the surrendered.[316][320][321] Clarke wrote 80%, or between 480,000 and 600,000 people, were killed between 1755 and 1758 in what "amounted to the complete destruction of not only the Zunghar state but of the Zunghars as a people."[316][322] Historian Peter Perdue has shown that the decimation of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of extermination launched by the Qianlong Emperor.[316] Although this "deliberate use of massacre" has been largely ignored by modern scholars,[316] Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence".[323] 80% of 600,000 Zungharian Oirats killed
Taíno genocide Hispaniola (now Dominican Republic and Haiti) 1492 1514 68,000
[324] 		968,000
[324]
The Taíno genocide refers to the decimation of the indigenous population of Hispaniola due to forced labor and exploitation by the Spanish. Raphael Lemkin (coiner of the term genocide) considers Spain's abuses of the native population of the Americas to constitute cultural and even outright genocide including the abuses of the Encomienda system. He described slavery as "cultural genocide par excellence" noting "it is the most effective and thorough method of destroying culture, of desocializing human beings." He considers colonist guilty due to failing to halt the abuses of the system despite royal orders. He also notes the sexual abuse of Spanish colonizers of Native women as acts of "biological genocide."[325] University of Hawaii historian David Stannard describes the encomienda as a genocidal system which "had driven many millions of native peoples in Central and South America to early and agonizing deaths."[326] Yale University's genocide studies program supports this view regarding abuses in Hispaniola.[324] Andrés Reséndez argues that even though the Spanish were aware of the spread of smallpox, they made no mention of it until 1519, a quarter century after Columbus arrived in Hispaniola.[327] Instead he contends that enslavement in gold and silver mines was the primary reason why the Native American population of Hispaniola dropped so significantly[328][327] and that even though disease was a factor, the native population would have rebounded the same way Europeans did during the Black Death if it were not for the constant enslavement they were subject to.[327] According to anthropologist Jason Hickel, a third of Arawak workers died every six months from lethal forced labor in the mines.[329] 68% to over 96% of the Taíno population perished under Spanish rule.[324]
Albigensian Crusade
(Cathar genocide) 		Languedoc (now France) 1209 1229 200,000
[330] 		1,000,000
[331]
The Albigensian Crusade was a 20-year military campaign initiated by Pope Innocent III to eliminate Catharism, a Christian sect, in Languedoc, in southern France. The Catholic Church considered them heretics and ordered that they should be completely eradicated.[332] Raphael Lemkin referred to the Albigensian Crusade as "one of the most conclusive cases of genocide in religious history".[333] Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Solveig Björnson describe it as "the first ideological genocide."[334]

See also

Main article: Outline of Genocide studies

Political extermination campaigns

Notes

  1. ^ Eastern Pygmy population was reduced to 90,000 after a campaign that killed 60,000[24] implying a 40% decline
  2. ^ Sources place the number up to 423,100 (89.2 % were women, children and elderly people)[citation needed]
  3. ^ Unlike other deported peoples who were acknowledged to be distinct ethnic groups and given their national republics back under Khrushchev, the Crimean Tatars were not given the right of return for decades, and in addition were stripped of recognition as a distinct ethnic group as part of a wider campaign pushing for their assimilation in the Fergana valley.[129]
  4. ^ a b Total number of Serbs, Jews and Roma killed. Excluding the Jews sent to the German extermination camps.
  5. ^ Roger Casement reported that a population officially placed at 50,000 had dropped to 7,000 at the lowest estimation, and 10,000 remaining natives with the highest estimation by the time investigations were sent to the Putumayo.[248]
  6. ^ Although ethnic cleansings and massacres began in the early 1800s, particularly under the command of the Tsarist Russian general Grigory Zass, the mass deportations, mass murders and extermination operations — where most deaths occurred — started in 1864.
  7. ^ Only the range of deaths caused by massacred
  8. ^ The total population decline of the period overall
  9. ^
    • Genocide education scholar Thomas Keefe – "The preparation (Stage 7) for genocide, specifically the transfer of population that "Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part" as stated in Article II of the UNCPPCG is clear in the Trail of Tears and other deportations of Native American populations from land seized for the benefit of European-American populations."[287]
    • Muscogee Nation Historic and Cultural Preservation Manager Rae Lynn Butler – "really was about extinguishing a race of people"; Archivist at the Cherokee Heritage Center Jerrid Miller – "The Trail of Tears was outright genocide".[288]
    • Sociologist and historian Vahakn Dadrian lists the expulsion of the Cherokee as an example of utilitarian genocide, stating "the expulsion and decimation of the Cherokee Indians from the territories of the State of Georgia is symbolic of the pattern of perpetration inflicted upon the American Indian by Whites in North America."[289]
    • Genocide scholar Adam Jones – "Forced relocations of Indian populations often took the form of genocidal death marches, most infamously the "Trails of Tears" of the Cherokee and Navajo nations, which killed between 20 and 40 percent of the targeted populations en route. The barren "tribal reservations" to which survivors were consigned exacted their own grievous toll through malnutrition and disease."[290]
    • Cherokee politician Bill John Baker – "this ruthless [Indian Removal Act] policy subjected 46,000 Indians—to a forced migration under punishing conditions […] amounted to genocide, the ethnic cleansing of men, women and children, motivated by racial hatred and greed, and carried out through sadism and violence."[291]
    • Sociologist James V. Fenelon and historian Clifford E. Trafzer – "Instead the national government and its leaders have offered a systemic denial of genocide, the occurrence of which would be contrary to the principles of a democratic and just society. "Denial of massive death counts is common among those whose forefathers were the perpetrators of the genocide" (Stannard, 1992, p. 152) with motives of protecting "the moral reputations of those people and that country responsible," including some scholars. It took 50 years of scholarly debate for the academy to recognize well-documented genocides of the Indian removals in the 1830s, including the Cherokee Trail of Tears, as with other nations of the "Five Civilized" southeastern tribes."[292]
  10. ^
    • Political scientist Michael Rogin – "To face responsibility for specific killings might have led to efforts to stop it; to avoid individual deaths turned Indian removal into a theory of genocide."[294]
    • Indigenous studies scholar Nicky Michael and historian Beverly Jean Smith – "Over one-fourth died on the forced death marches of the 1830s. By any United Nations standard, these actions can be equated with genocide and ethnic cleansing."[295]
    • Historian Jim Piecuch argues that the Trail of Tears constitutes one tool in the genocide of Native Americans over the three centuries since the beginning of colonization in north America.[296]
    • Political scientist Andrew R. Basso – "The Cherokee Trail of Tears should be understood within the context of colonial genocide in the Americas. This is yet another chapter of colonial forces acting against an indigenous group in order to secure rich and fertile lands, resources, and living spaces."[297]
    • Political scientist Barbara Harff – "One of the most enduring and abhorrent problems of the world is genocide, which is neither particular to a specific race, class, or nation, nor rooted in any one ethnocentric view of the world. […] Often democratic institutions are cited as safeguards against mass excesses. In view of the treatment of Amerindians by agents of the U.S. government, this view is unwarranted. For example, the thousands of Cherokees who died during the Trail of Tears (Cherokee Indians were forced to march in 1838-1839 from Appalachia to Oklahoma) testify that even a democratic system may tum against its people."[298]
    • Legal scholar Rennard Strickland – "There were, of course, great and tragic Indian massacres and bitter exoduses, illegal even under the laws of war. We know these acts of genocide by place names - Sand Creek, the Battle of Washita, Wounded Knee - and by their tragic poetic codes - the Trail of Tears, the Long Walk, the Cheyenne Autumn. But ... genocidal objectives have been carried out under color of law - in de Tocqueville's phrase, "legally, philanthropically, without shedding blood, and without violating a single great principle of morality in the eyes of the word." These were legally enacted policies whereby a way of life, a culture, was deliberately obliterated. As the great Indian orator Dragging Canoe concluded, "Whole Indian Nations have melted away like balls of snow in the sun leaving scarcely a name except as imperfectly recorded by their destroyers"."[299]
    • Legal scholars Christopher Turner and Mary Ellen Turpel-Lafond reiterate Strickland's assessment.[300]
    • Attorney Maria Conversa – "The theft of ancestral tribal lands, the genocide of tribal members, public hostility towards Native peoples, and irreversible oppression--these are the realities that every indigenous person has had to face because of colonization. By recognizing and respecting the Muscogee Creek Nation's authority to criminally sentence its own members, the United States Supreme Court could have taken a small step towards righting these wrongs."[301]
    • Historian David Stannard and ethnic studies scholar Ward Churchill have both identified the trail of tears as part of the United States history of genocidal actions against indigenous nations.[302][303]
    • Sociologist Benjamin P. Bowser, psychologist Carol O. Word, and Kate Shaw – "There was a pattern to Indian genocide. One-by-one, each Native state was defeated militarily; successive Native generations fought and were defeated as well. As settlers became more numerous and stronger militarily, Indians became fewer and weaker militarily. In one Indian nation after the other, resistance eventually collapsed due to the death toll from violence. Then, survivors were displaced from their ancestral lands, which had sustained them for generations. […] Starting in 1830, surviving Native people, mostly Cherokee, in the Eastern US were ordered by President Andrew Jackson to march up to two thousand miles and to cross the Mississippi River to settle in Oklahoma. Thousands died on the Trail of Tears. This pattern of defeat, displacement, and victimization repeated itself in the American West. From this history, Native Americans were victims of all five Lemkin specified genocidal acts."[304]
    • Sociologist and psychologist Laurence French wrote that the trail of tears was at least a campaign of cultural genocide.[305]
    • Cultural studies scholar Melissa Slocum – "Rarely is the conversation about the impact of genocide on today’s generations or the overall steps that lead to genocide. As well, most curricula in the education system, from kindergarten up through to college, does not discuss in detail American Indian genocide beyond possibly a quick one-day mention of the Cherokee Trail of Tears."[306]
    • English and literary scholar Thir Bahadur Budhathoki – "On the basis of the basic concept of genocide as propounded by Rephael Lemkin, the definitions of the UN Convention and other genocide scholars, sociological perspective of genocide-modernity nexus and the philosophical understanding of such crime as an evil in its worst possible form, the fictional representation of the entire process of Cherokee removal including its antecedents and consequences represented in these novels, is genocidal in nature. However, the American government, that mostly represents the perpetrators of the process, and the Euro-American culture of the United States considered as the mainstream culture, have not acknowledged the Native American tragedy as genocide."[307]

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  99. ^ While the official Pakistani government report (Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report 1974) estimated that the Pakistani army was responsible for 26,000 killings in total, other sources have proposed various estimates ranging between 200,000 and 3 million. Indian Professor Sarmila Bose recently expressed the view that a truly impartial study has never been done, while Bangladeshi ambassador Shamsher M. Chowdhury has suggested that a joint Pakistan-Bangladeshi commission be formed to properly investigate the event.
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    • Mawdsley, Evan (2015) [2005]. Thunder in the East: The Nazi-Soviet War 1941–1945. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 437n30. ISBN 978-1-4725-1008-2 – via Google Books. ... His total death toll for the European Holocaust was 5,100,00
    • Rubinstein, William D. (2014) [2004]. Genocide. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-86995-5 – via Google Books. The number of Jews killed at the hands of the Nazis is invariably given, in shorthand terms at any rate, as 6 million, a figure which has, of course, entered the common consciousness and is endlessly repeated.122 It appears likely, however, that this number is too high by a considerable amount, as some careful Holocaust scholars such as Gerald Reitlinger and Raul Hilberg have pointed out. Reitlinger's early (1953) but carefully argued estimate of between 4,194,000 and 4,581,000 Jewish deaths is certainly the lowest ever offered by a serious historian; Hilberg's more recent, but even more carefully argued estimate of 5,100,000... appears to be the next lowest among reputable scholars... it appears to this historian that Reitlinger's figures are probably most nearly correct, with the figure of Jewish victims of the Holocaust numbering about 4.7 million, although there is a wide margin of imprecision. Given that about 2.7 million Jews perished in the six major extermination camps, a figure of 6 million Jewish dead necessarily means that 3.3 million perished in other ways: this is very difficult to believe and is almost certainly an exaggeration. In demographic terms, there are two ways of approaching this question: to compare the number of Jews in Nazi-occupied countries in September 1939 with those alive in May 1945 (bearing in mind such other factors as the escape of refugees and battle deaths), and to provide an estimate of the number of Jews who perished by method of death in the extermination camps, at the hands of the Einsatzgruppen, etc. Both are fraught with difficulties, especially the former
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    • Hayes, Peter; Roth, John K. (2012) [2010]. The Oxford Handbook of Holocaust Studies. Oxford University Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-19-165079-6 – via Google Books. Nevertheless, scholarly research, aided by recently opened archives and computerized data processing capacities, has put statistical estimates on a firmer footing than was possible in earlier decades. In previous stages of research, estimates of the Jewish victims ranged from 4,202,000—4,575,400 (Reitlinger 1961: 533–46), to 5.1 million (Hilberg 1961: 767), to 5,820,960 (Robinson 1971'. 889), to 6,093,000 (Lestchinsky 1948:60). At the end of the 1980s two different teams, one headed by a German scholar, another by an Israeli, meticulously reviewed all the available data and arrived at the following numbers for Jewish fatalities during the Holocaust: 5,596,000 to 5,860,149 (Gutman 1990: 1799) and 5.29 million to slightly more than 6 million (Benz 1991: 17). The new Yad Vashem museum, which opened in 2005, mentions 5,786,748 Jewish victims. One can be skeptical of such precision, but the most current research reliably calculates a total number of victims close to the now iconic figure Six Million
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  139. ^ For a listing of the number of murdered Jews, detailed by country, see Dawidowicz, Lucy (2010). The War Against the Jews: 1933–1945. Open Road Media. Appendix A. ISBN 978-1453203064.
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  145. ^ "Remaining Jewish Population of Europe in 1945". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 13 June 2018. According to the American Jewish Yearbook, the Jewish population of Europe was about 9.5 million in 1933. In 1950, the Jewish population of Europe was about 3.5 million.
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  148. ^ a b Jones, Adam (2017). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction (3rd ed.). London: Routledge. p. 377. ISBN 9781138823846. 'Next to the Jews in Europe,' wrote Alexander Werth', 'the biggest single German crime was undoubtedly the extermination by hunger, exposure and in other ways of ... Russian war prisoners.' Yet the murder of at least 3.3 million Soviet POWs is one of the least-known of modern genocides; there is still no full-length book on the subject in English. It also stands as one of the most intensive genocides of all time: 'a holocaust that devoured millions,' as Catherine Merridale acknowledges. The large majority of POWs, some 2.8 million, were killed in just eight months of 1941–42, a rate of slaughter matched (to my knowledge) only by the 1994 Rwanda genocide.
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  152. ^ a b Yeomans, Rory (2013). Visions of Annihilation: The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941-1945. University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 18. ISBN 9780822977933. Although the estimates of the number of Serbs murdered by the regime vary, even the most conservative figures suggest that out of a pre-war population of 1.9 million, at least 200,000 and possibly as many as 500,000 died at the hands of Ustasha death squads, were executed, or perished in the state's concentration camps.
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  154. ^ a b "The JUST Act Report: Croatia". state.gov. U.S. Department of State. In all, approximately 30,000 Jews (between 75-80 percent of the Jews within the NDH) died during the Holocaust, the majority at the hands of the Ustasha, although the NDH also transferred some 7,000 Jews to the Nazis to be deported to Auschwitz... The NDH also killed an estimated 25,000 or more Roma men, women, and children, the vast majority of the Roma population under its control.
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  163. ^ a b "Polish Victims". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 30 October 2020. It is estimated that the Germans killed between 1.8 and 1.9 million non-Jewish Polish civilians during World War II. In addition, the Germans murdered at least 3 million Jewish citizens of Poland.
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Bibliography

Main article: Bibliography of Genocide studies


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