Elections in Vermont
Federal government
Presidential elections
Presidential primaries
Democratic
2000
2004
2008
2012
2016
2020
Republican
2008
2012
2016
2020
2024
U.S. Senate elections
U.S. House elections
State government
General elections
Gubernatorial elections
Lieutenant gubernatorial elections
Attorney General elections
Senate elections
House of Representatives elections
Burlington
Mayoral elections

The governor of Vermont is the head of government of the U.S. state of Vermont. Since 1994, Vermont is one of only two U.S. states (New Hampshire being the other) that elects governors for two-year terms.[1] Until 1870, Vermont elected its governors for one-year terms.[2] Isaac Tichenor, Jonas Galusha, Erastus Fairbanks, and Richard A. Snelling each served non-consecutive terms, while Thomas Chittenden served non consecutive terms as Governor of the Vermont Republic.[3]

Mountain Rule

From the founding of the Republican Party in the 1850s until the 1960s, only Republicans won general elections for Vermont's statewide offices. One method that made this possible was the Republican Party's imposition of the "Mountain Rule," an informal mechanism which restricted the pool of candidates.[4]

Under the original provisions of the Mountain Rule, one U.S. senator was a resident of the east side of the Green Mountains and one resided on the west side. The expanded version of the rule called for the governorship and lieutenant governorship to alternate between residents of the east and west side. Nominees for governor and lieutenant governor were originally allowed two one-year terms, and later one two-year term. For nearly 100 years, likely Republican candidates for office in Vermont agreed to abide by the expanded Mountain Rule in the interests of party unity. Several factors led to the eventual weakening of the Mountain Rule, including the long political dispute between the Proctor (conservative) and Aiken–Gibson (progressive) wings of the party; primaries rather than conventions to select nominees; the direct election of U.S. Senators; and several active third parties, including the Progressives, the Prohibition Party, and the Local Option movement. In the 1960s, the rise of the Vermont Democratic Party and the construction of Interstate 89 also contributed to the end of the Mountain Rule. Although I-89 is a north–south route, it traverses Vermont from southeast to northwest for the majority of its length within the state and changed the way residents view how it is divided.[5][6]

List of governors

Vermont Republic

The Vermont Republic declared independence from Great Britain on January 15, 1777.

Governors of the Republic of Vermont
No. Governor Term in office Party Election Lt. Governor
1 Thomas Chittenden
(1730–1797)
[7][8] 		March 13, 1778[9]
–
October 13, 1789
(lost election)[10] 		No party 1778 Joseph Marsh
1779 Benjamin Carpenter
1780
1781 Elisha Payne
1782 Paul Spooner
1783
1784
1785
1786 Joseph Marsh
1787
1788
2 Moses Robinson
(1741–1813)
[11] 		October 13, 1789[12]
–
October 20, 1790
(lost election)[10] 		No party 1789
3 Thomas Chittenden
(1730–1797)
[7][8] 		October 20, 1790[13]
–
March 4, 1791
(became state governor)[14] 		No party 1790 Peter Olcott

State of Vermont

Vermont was admitted to the Union on March 4, 1791.

Governors of the State of Vermont
No. Governor Term in office Party Election Lt. Governor[a]
1   Thomas Chittenden
(1730–1797)
[7][8] 		March 5, 1791[15]
–
August 25, 1797
(died in office)[14] 		No party[16] 1791   Peter Olcott
1792
1793
1794 Jonathan Hunt
1795
1796 Paul Brigham[b]
2 Paul Brigham
(1746–1824)
[17][18] 		August 25, 1797[15]
–
October 16, 1797
(did not run)[19] 		Democratic-
Republican[20] 		Succeeded from
lieutenant
governor 		Vacant
3 Isaac Tichenor
(1754–1838)
[21][22] 		October 16, 1797[23]
–
October 9, 1807
(lost election)[10] 		Federalist[15] 1797 Paul Brigham
1798
1799
1800
1801
1802
1803
1804
1805
1806
4 Israel Smith
(1759–1810)
[24][25] 		October 9, 1807[26]
–
October 14, 1808
(lost election)[10] 		Democratic-
Republican[15] 		1807
5 Isaac Tichenor
(1754–1838)
[21][22] 		October 14, 1808[27]
–
October 14, 1809
(lost election)[10] 		Federalist[15] 1808
6 Jonas Galusha
(1753–1834)
[28][29] 		October 14, 1809[30]
–
October 23, 1813
(lost election)[10] 		Democratic-
Republican[15] 		1809
1810
1811
1812
7 Martin Chittenden
(1763–1840)
[31][32] 		October 23, 1813[33]
–
October 14, 1815
(lost election)[10] 		Federalist[15] 1813 William Chamberlain
1814
8 Jonas Galusha
(1753–1834)
[28][29] 		October 14, 1815[34]
–
October 13, 1820
(did not run)[28] 		Democratic-
Republican[15] 		1815 Paul Brigham
1816
1817
1818
1819
9 Richard Skinner
(1778–1833)
[35][36] 		October 13, 1820[37]
–
October 10, 1823
(did not run)[35] 		Democratic-
Republican[15] 		1820 William Cahoon
1821
1822 Aaron Leland[b]
10 Cornelius P. Van Ness
(1782–1852)
[38][39] 		October 10, 1823[40]
–
October 13, 1826
(did not run)[38] 		Democratic-
Republican[15] 		1823
1824
1825
11 Ezra Butler
(1763–1838)
[41][42] 		October 13, 1826[43]
–
October 10, 1828
(did not run)[41] 		National
Republican[15] 		1826
1827 Henry Olin[b]
12 Samuel C. Crafts
(1768–1853)
[44][45] 		October 10, 1828[46]
–
October 18, 1831
(did not run)[44] 		National
Republican[15] 		1828
1829
1830 Mark Richards
13 William A. Palmer
(1781–1860)
[47][48] 		October 18, 1831[49]
–
November 2, 1835
(lost election)[c][10] 		Anti-Masonic[15] 1831 Lebbeus Egerton
1832
1833
1834
14 Silas H. Jennison
(1791–1849)
[50][51] 		November 2, 1835[c]
–
October 18, 1841
(did not run)[50] 		Whig[d] 1835[c] Acting as governor
1836 David M. Camp
1837
1838
1839
1840
15 Charles Paine
(1799–1853)
[54][55] 		October 18, 1841[56]
–
October 13, 1843
(did not run)[54] 		Whig[15] 1841 Waitstill R. Ranney
1842
16 John Mattocks
(1777–1847)
[57][58] 		October 13, 1843[59]
–
October 11, 1844
(did not run)[57] 		Whig[15] 1843 Horace Eaton
17 William Slade
(1786–1859)
[60][61] 		October 11, 1844[62]
–
October 9, 1846
(did not run)[63] 		Whig[15] 1844
1845
18 Horace Eaton
(1804–1855)
[64][65] 		October 9, 1846[66]
–
October 19, 1848
(did not run)[67] 		Whig[15] 1846 Leonard Sargeant
1847
19 Carlos Coolidge
(1792–1866)
[68][69] 		October 19, 1848[70]
–
October 12, 1850
(did not run) 		Whig[15] 1848 Robert Pierpoint
1849
20 Charles K. Williams
(1782–1853)
[71][72] 		October 12, 1850[73]
–
October 18, 1852
(did not run)[71] 		Whig[15] 1850 Julius Converse
1851
21 Erastus Fairbanks
(1792–1864)
[74][75] 		October 18, 1852[76]
–
November 1, 1853
(lost election)[10] 		Whig[15] 1852 William C. Kittredge
22 John S. Robinson
(1804–1860)
[77][78] 		November 1, 1853[79]
–
October 13, 1854
(did not run)[77] 		Democratic[15] 1853 Jefferson P. Kidder
23 Stephen Royce
(1787–1868)
[80][81] 		October 13, 1854[82]
–
October 10, 1856
(did not run)[83] 		Whig[84] 1854 Ryland Fletcher
Republican[84] 1855
24 Ryland Fletcher
(1799–1885)
[85][86] 		October 10, 1856[87]
–
October 15, 1858
(did not run)[85] 		Republican[15] 1856 James M. Slade
1857
25 Hiland Hall
(1795–1885)
[88][89] 		October 15, 1858[90]
–
October 12, 1860
(did not run)[83] 		Republican[15] 1858 Burnham Martin
1859
26 Erastus Fairbanks
(1792–1864)
[74][75] 		October 12, 1860[91]
–
October 22, 1861
(did not run)[74] 		Republican[15] 1860 Levi Underwood
27 Frederick Holbrook
(1813–1909)
[92][93] 		October 22, 1861[94]
–
October 9, 1863
(did not run)[83] 		Republican[15] 1861
1862 Paul Dillingham
28 J. Gregory Smith
(1818–1891)
[95][96] 		October 9, 1863[97]
–
October 13, 1865
(did not run)[83] 		Republican[15] 1863
1864
29 Paul Dillingham
(1799–1891)
[98][99] 		October 13, 1865[100]
–
October 13, 1867
(did not run)[98] 		Republican[15] 1865 Abraham B. Gardner
1866
30 John B. Page
(1826–1885)
[101][102] 		October 13, 1867[103]
–
October 16, 1869
(did not run)[101] 		Republican[15] 1867 Stephen Thomas
1868
31 Peter T. Washburn
(1814–1870)
[104][105] 		October 16, 1869[106]
–
February 7, 1870
(died in office)[14] 		Republican[15] 1869 George W. Hendee
32 George Whitman Hendee
(1832–1906)
[107][108] 		February 7, 1870[109]
–
October 6, 1870
(did not run)[107][e] 		Republican[15] Succeeded from
lieutenant
governor 		Vacant
33 John Wolcott Stewart
(1825–1915)
[110][111] 		October 6, 1870[112]
–
October 3, 1872
(lost nomination)[110][f] 		Republican[15] 1870 George N. Dale
34 Julius Converse
(1798–1885)
[113][114] 		October 3, 1872[115]
–
October 8, 1874
(did not run)[83] 		Republican[15] 1872 Russell S. Taft
35 Asahel Peck
(1803–1879)
[116][117] 		October 8, 1874[118]
–
October 5, 1876
(did not run)[83] 		Republican[15] 1874 Lyman G. Hinckley
36 Horace Fairbanks
(1820–1888)
[119][120] 		October 5, 1876[121]
–
October 3, 1878
(did not run)[83] 		Republican[15] 1876 Redfield Proctor
37 Redfield Proctor
(1831–1908)
[122][123] 		October 3, 1878[124]
–
October 7, 1880
(did not run)[83] 		Republican[15] 1878 Eben Pomeroy Colton
38 Roswell Farnham
(1827–1903)
[125][126] 		October 7, 1880[127]
–
October 5, 1882
(did not run)[125] 		Republican[15] 1880 John L. Barstow
39 John L. Barstow
(1832–1913)
[128][129] 		October 5, 1882[130]
–
October 2, 1884
(did not run)[128] 		Republican[15] 1882 Samuel E. Pingree
40 Samuel E. Pingree
(1832–1922)
[131][132] 		October 2, 1884[133]
–
October 7, 1886
(did not run)[131] 		Republican[15] 1884 Ebenezer J. Ormsbee
41 Ebenezer J. Ormsbee
(1834–1924)
[134][135] 		October 7, 1886[136]
–
October 4, 1888
(did not run)[134] 		Republican[15] 1886 Levi K. Fuller
42 William P. Dillingham
(1843–1923)
[137][138] 		October 4, 1888[139]
–
October 2, 1890
(did not run)[83] 		Republican[15] 1888 Urban A. Woodbury
43 Carroll S. Page
(1843–1925)
[140][141] 		October 2, 1890[142]
–
October 6, 1892
(did not run)[140] 		Republican[15] 1890 Henry A. Fletcher
44 Levi K. Fuller
(1841–1896)
[143][144] 		October 6, 1892[145]
–
October 4, 1894
(did not run)[143] 		Republican[15] 1892 F. Stewart Stranahan
45 Urban A. Woodbury
(1838–1915)
[146][147] 		October 4, 1894[148]
–
October 8, 1896
(did not run)[146] 		Republican[15] 1894 Zophar M. Mansur
46 Josiah Grout
(1841–1925)
[149][150] 		October 8, 1896[151]
–
October 6, 1898
(did not run)[149] 		Republican[15] 1896 Nelson W. Fisk
47 Edward Curtis Smith
(1854–1935)
[152][153] 		October 6, 1898[154]
–
October 4, 1900
(did not run)[152] 		Republican[15] 1898 Henry C. Bates
48 William W. Stickney
(1853–1932)
[155][156] 		October 4, 1900[157]
–
October 3, 1902
(did not run)[155] 		Republican[15] 1900 Martin F. Allen
49 John G. McCullough
(1835–1915)
[158][159] 		October 3, 1902[160]
–
October 6, 1904
(did not run)[158] 		Republican[15] 1902 Zed S. Stanton
50 Charles J. Bell
(1845–1909)
[161][162] 		October 6, 1904[163]
–
October 4, 1906
(did not run)[161] 		Republican[15] 1904 Charles H. Stearns
51 Fletcher D. Proctor
(1860–1911)
[164][165] 		October 4, 1906[166]
–
October 8, 1908
(did not run)[164] 		Republican[15] 1906 George H. Prouty
52 George H. Prouty
(1862–1918)
[167][168] 		October 8, 1908[169]
–
October 6, 1910
(did not run)[83] 		Republican[15] 1908 John A. Mead
53 John A. Mead
(1841–1920)
[170][171] 		October 6, 1910[172]
–
October 3, 1912
(did not run)[170] 		Republican[15] 1910 Leighton P. Slack
54 Allen M. Fletcher
(1853–1922)
[173][174] 		October 3, 1912[175]
–
January 7, 1915
(did not run)[173] 		Republican[15] 1912 Frank E. Howe
55 Charles W. Gates
(1856–1927)
[176][177] 		January 7, 1915[178]
–
January 4, 1917
(did not run)[176] 		Republican[15] 1914 Hale K. Darling
56 Horace F. Graham
(1862–1941)
[179][180] 		January 4, 1917[181]
–
January 10, 1919
(did not run)[182] 		Republican[15] 1916 Roger W. Hulburd
57 Percival W. Clement
(1846–1927)
[183][184] 		January 10, 1919[185]
–
January 7, 1921
(did not run)[182] 		Republican[15] 1918 Mason S. Stone
58 James Hartness
(1861–1934)
[186][187] 		January 7, 1921[188]
–
January 4, 1923
(did not run)[186] 		Republican[15] 1920 Abram W. Foote
59 Redfield Proctor Jr.
(1879–1957)
[189][190] 		January 4, 1923[191]
–
January 8, 1925
(did not run)[182] 		Republican[15] 1922 Franklin S. Billings
60 Franklin S. Billings
(1862–1935)
[192][193] 		January 8, 1925[194]
–
January 6, 1927
(did not run)[192] 		Republican[15] 1924 Walter K. Farnsworth
61 John E. Weeks
(1853–1949)
[195][196] 		January 6, 1927[197]
–
January 8, 1931
(did not run)[g][182] 		Republican[15] 1926 Hollister Jackson
(died November 2, 1927)
Vacant
1928 Stanley C. Wilson
62 Stanley C. Wilson
(1879–1967)
[198][199] 		January 8, 1931[200]
–
January 10, 1935
(did not run)[201] 		Republican[15] 1930 Benjamin Williams
1932 Charles Manley Smith
63 Charles Manley Smith
(1868–1937)
[202][203] 		January 10, 1935[204]
–
January 7, 1937
(did not run)[202] 		Republican[15] 1934 George D. Aiken
64 George Aiken
(1892–1984)
[205][206] 		January 7, 1937[207]
–
January 9, 1941
(did not run)[208][h] 		Republican[15] 1936 William Henry Wills
1938
65 William Henry Wills
(1882–1946)
[209][210] 		January 9, 1941[211]
–
January 4, 1945
(did not run)[209] 		Republican[15] 1940 Mortimer R. Proctor
1942
66 Mortimer R. Proctor
(1889–1968)
[212][213] 		January 4, 1945[214]
–
January 9, 1947
(lost nomination)[212] 		Republican[15] 1944 Lee E. Emerson
67 Ernest W. Gibson Jr.
(1901–1969)
[215][216] 		January 9, 1947[217]
–
January 16, 1950
(resigned)[i] 		Republican[15] 1946
1948 Harold J. Arthur
68 Harold J. Arthur
(1904–1971)
[218][219] 		January 16, 1950[220]
–
January 4, 1951
(did not run)[218] 		Republican[15] Succeeded from
lieutenant
governor 		Vacant
69 Lee E. Emerson
(1898–1976)
[221][222] 		January 4, 1951[223]
–
January 6, 1955
(did not run) 		Republican[15] 1950 Joseph B. Johnson
1952
70 Joseph B. Johnson
(1893–1986)
[224][225] 		January 6, 1955[226]
–
January 15, 1959
(did not run) 		Republican[15] 1954 Consuelo N. Bailey
1956 Robert T. Stafford
71 Robert Stafford
(1913–2006)
[227][228] 		January 15, 1959[229]
–
January 5, 1961
(did not run)[j] 		Republican[15] 1958 Robert S. Babcock
72 F. Ray Keyser Jr.
(1927–2015)
[230][231] 		January 5, 1961[232]
–
January 10, 1963
(lost election)[10] 		Republican[15] 1960 Ralph A. Foote[k]
73 Philip H. Hoff
(1924–2018)
[233][234] 		January 10, 1963[235]
–
January 9, 1969
(did not run)[233] 		Democratic[15] 1962
1964 John J. Daley
1966
74 Deane C. Davis
(1900–1990)
[236][237] 		January 9, 1969[238]
–
January 4, 1973
(did not run) 		Republican[15] 1968 Thomas L. Hayes
1970 John S. Burgess[k]
75 Thomas P. Salmon
(b. 1932)
[239][240] 		January 4, 1973[241]
–
January 6, 1977
(did not run)[239] 		Democratic[15] 1972
1974 Brian D. Burns
76 Richard A. Snelling
(1927–1991)
[242][243] 		January 6, 1977[244]
–
January 10, 1985
(did not run) 		Republican[243] 1976 T. Garry Buckley
1978 Madeleine Kunin[l]
1980
1982 Peter P. Smith[k]
77 Madeleine Kunin
(b. 1933)
[245] 		January 10, 1985[246]
–
January 10, 1991
(did not run) 		Democratic[245] 1984
1986 Howard Dean
1988
78 Richard A. Snelling
(1927–1991)
[243] 		January 10, 1991[247]
–
August 13, 1991
(died in office) 		Republican[243] 1990
79 Howard Dean
(b. 1948)
[248] 		August 13, 1991[249]
–
January 9, 2003
(did not run) 		Democratic[248] Succeeded from
lieutenant
governor 		Vacant
1992 Barbara W. Snelling[k]
1994
1996 Doug Racine
1998
2000
80 Jim Douglas
(b. 1951)
[250] 		January 9, 2003[251]
–
January 6, 2011
(did not run) 		Republican[250] 2002 Brian Dubie
2004
2006
2008
81 Peter Shumlin
(b. 1956)
[252] 		January 6, 2011[253]
–
January 5, 2017
(did not run) 		Democratic[252] 2010 Phil Scott[k]
2012
2014
82 Phil Scott
(b. 1958)
[254] 		January 5, 2017[255]
–
Incumbent[m] 		Republican[254] 2016 David Zuckerman[n]
2018
2020 Molly Gray[l]
2022 David Zuckerman[n]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Lieutenant governors represented the same party as their governor unless noted.
  2. ^ a b c Represented the Democratic-Republican Party
  3. ^ a b c In the 1835 election, Palmer received a plurality, but not the required majority; the legislature remained deadlocked after 63 votes and the joint assembly dissolved on November 2[53] without choosing a governor, so Lieutenant Governor Jennison acted as governor for the term.[47]
  4. ^ Jennison represented both the Anti-Masonic and the Whig parties in 1835.[52]
  5. ^ Republican convention delegates decided that since Washburn, from the East side of the Green Mountains, had won the nomination in 1869, the 1870 nomination should go to a candidate from the West. They also decided that though he was from the West, nominating Hendee would violate the Mountain Rule's two years in office provision, because 1870 would be the first election for a two-year term. As a result, Hendee was not a candidate.
  6. ^ Vermont's gubernatorial terms were changed from one year to two. Stewart argued that the Mountain Rule's two-term limit on governors should allow him to serve two two-year terms. Republican convention delegates decided that the Mountain Rule limited governors to two years in office, so Stewart was not re-nominated.
  7. ^ Weeks successfully argued that he should serve a second term in order to oversee recovery from the Great Flood of 1927. In 1930, he was elected to the United States House of Representatives.[195]
  8. ^ Aiken was instead elected to the United States Senate.[205]
  9. ^ Gibson resigned, having been confirmed to the United States District Court for the District of Vermont.[215]
  10. ^ Stafford was instead elected to the United States House of Representatives.[227]
  11. ^ a b c d e Represented the Republican Party
  12. ^ a b Represented the Democratic Party
  13. ^ Scott's fourth term began on January 5, 2023, and will expire in January 2025.
  14. ^ a b Represented the Progressive Party

References

General
Specific
  1. ^ Berg-Andersson, Richard E. (May 23, 2021). "Length of Terms of Office of State Governors Throughout American History". The Green Papers. Richard E. Berg-Andersson. Retrieved January 5, 2023.
  2. ^ pdf Archived 2016-01-12 at the Wayback Machine
  3. ^ Vermont State Archives & Records Administration (2017). "State Officers: Executive Branch; Governors". SOS.Vermont.Gov. Montpelier, VT: Vermont Secretary of State. Retrieved January 5, 2023.
  4. ^ The Direct Primary, sos.vermont.gov
  5. ^ "The Mountain Rule in Vermont". The New York Times. February 12, 1895. p. 7. Retrieved October 2, 2023.
  6. ^ Magazine article, Mountain Rule Revisited, by Samuel B. Hand, Vermont History Magazine, published by Vermont Historical Society, Summer/Fall 2003, pages 139 to 151
  7. ^ a b c Sobel 1978, p. 1561.
  8. ^ a b c "Thomas Chittenden". National Governors Association. Retrieved July 11, 2023.
  9. ^ State of Vermont (1873). Records of the Governor and Council of the State of Vermont. Vol. I. Montpelier, J. & J.M. Poland. p. 243.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Position Papers: When conviviality leads to 'conspiracy of collegiality'". Barre Montpelier Times Argus. Barre, VT. October 17, 2018 [October 24, 2004].
  11. ^ "Moses Robinson". National Governors Association. Retrieved July 11, 2023.
  12. ^ State of Vermont (1873). Records of the Governor and Council of the State of Vermont. Vol. III. Montpelier, J. & J.M. Poland. p. 189.
  13. ^ State of Vermont (1873). Records of the Governor and Council of the State of Vermont. Vol. III. Montpelier, J. & J.M. Poland. p. 211.
  14. ^ a b c Wilbur, La Fayette (1899). Early History of Vermont. Jericho, VT: Roscoe Printing House. p. 333 – via Google Books.
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu Kallenbach 1977, pp. 587–589.
  16. ^ Glashan 1979, p. 314.
  17. ^ Sobel 1978, p. 1562.
  18. ^ "Paul Brigham". National Governors Association. Retrieved July 12, 2023.
  19. ^ Conant, Edward (1915). A Text Book of the Geography, History, Constitution and Civil Government of Vermont. Rutland, VT: Tuttle Company. pp. 311, 321 – via Google Books.
  20. ^ Glashan 1979, p. 310.
  21. ^ a b Sobel 1978, pp. 1562–1563.
  22. ^ a b "Isaac Tichenor". National Governors Association. Retrieved July 12, 2023.
  23. ^ State of Vermont (1873). Records of the Governor and Council of the State of Vermont. Vol. IV. Montpelier, J. & J.M. Poland. p. 141.
  24. ^ Sobel 1978, pp. 1563–1564.
  25. ^ "Israel Smith". National Governors Association. Retrieved July 12, 2023.
  26. ^ State of Vermont (1873). Records of the Governor and Council of the State of Vermont. Vol. IV. Montpelier, J. & J.M. Poland. p. 151.
  27. ^ State of Vermont (1873). Records of the Governor and Council of the State of Vermont. Vol. V. Montpelier, J. & J.M. Poland. p. 192.
  28. ^ a b c Sobel 1978, pp. 1564–1565.
  29. ^ a b "Jonas Galusha". National Governors Association. Retrieved July 12, 2023.
  30. ^ State of Vermont (1873). Records of the Governor and Council of the State of Vermont. Vol. V. Montpelier, J. & J.M. Poland. p. 245.
  31. ^ Sobel 1978, pp. 1565–1566.
  32. ^ "Martin Chittenden". National Governors Association. Retrieved July 12, 2023.
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