March 26, 1923: Beloved stage and film actress Sarah Bernhardt dies after 60-year career
The following events occurred in March 1923:
March 1, 1923 (Thursday)
The Kingdom of Greece became one of the last remaining world nations to abandon the Julian calendar in favor of the Gregorian calendar, which was 13 days ahead of what had been used before. What would have been Thursday, February 16, 1923 on the Julian calendar became March the first.[1][2]
France and Belgium decreed that they would impose the death penalty on anyone in occupied Germany sabotaging transport lines.[4]
Judgment was delivered in the Stopes v Sutherland libel trial in the High Court, London. The defendant, Dr Halliday Sutherland, successfully defeated the libel action brought by Marie Stopes.[5]
Pola Negri released a written statement saying she was breaking off her engagement to Charlie Chaplin. "I consider I am too poor to marry Charlie Chaplin", the statement read. "He needs to marry a wealthy woman, and he should have no difficulty in finding one in the United States – the richest and most beautiful country in the world."[6] She rescinded the statement the next day, announcing that "We have made up. I believe that it is what you call it here in America", she stated.[6]
Died: William Bourke Cockran, 69, Irish-born U.S. Congressman for New York who served more than 10 years between 1887 and the time of his death, died the day after being honored on his birthday after a speech in Congress. Cockran, who had been re-elected on four months earlier, died at his Washington home came three days before he was to be sworn in for a new term in the 68th U.S. Congress. Cockran suffered a stroke two hours after blowing out candles on his birthday cake and telling the distinguished guests, "I may tell you my wish. It is that I may live many years with my dear wife."[7]
French Army troops occupying Germany's Ruhr valley seized 232 locomotives and hundreds of freight train cars (and their cargoes) in early morning raids in the towns of cities of Dusseldorf, Hamborn, and Wanne, as collection for past due reparations.[8]
Hito Çako, Albanian Communist politician, lieutenant general and honoree as "Hero of the People", later executed by firing squad after being convicted of treason; in Progonat (d. 1975)
The first issue of TIME magazine, weekly summary of news founded by Briton Hadden and Henry R. Luce, was on newsstands. In that the cover dates of weekly magazines are for at least a week ahead (usually for the release date of the next scheduled issue) to avoid the appearance of being out-of-date, the March 3, 1923 issue was actually put on newsstands on February 24. Joseph G. Cannon, the former Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives and who was retiring from Congress after 50 years, was featured on the first cover.
On the last full day of the 67th U.S. Congress, the U.S. Senate rejected President Warren G. Harding's proposal to have the U.S. join the World Court, with only 24 senators in favor and 49 against. Only one member of Harding's Republican Party, Senator Peter Norbeck of South Dakota, voted for the bill.[10]
The French Army extended its seizure of railway yards in the Ruhr occupational zone, taking control of the major industrial center at Darmstadt, along with the ports of Mannheim and Karlsruhe, and the villages of Lorch am Rhein and Knielingen, now a part of Karlsruhe.[11]
Twenty-two people were fatally poisoned at a dinner for students, teachers and family members at the First Provincial Normal School in Hangzhou in China's Zhejiang province, and 250 others required medical treatment. Five cooks were arrested after the deaths were traced to lethal toxins in rice.[12]
A lengthy article titled "Better Fewer, But Better" by Vladimir Lenin was published in Pravda. In it, he wrote that global revolution was inevitable because Eastern countries like Russia, India and China accounted for the overwhelming majority of the world's population, but the victory of socialism may have to wait until they were sufficiently educated and developed.[13][14]
The 68th United States Congress began its new session with 435 representatives but only 95 of its 96 Senate seats were filled. The Senate, considering a challenge to Earle B. Mayfield by George Peddy regarding the 1922 election, declined to swear Mayfield in. Mayfield would be sworn in nine months later on December 3, pending a final investigation of Peddy's challenge.[15]
President Harding signed the Agricultural Credits Act, providing for the establishment of regional banks to provide loans to farm cooperative associations from which farmers could borrow.[16]
In Saltillo in Mexico's Coahuila state, the Universidad Antonio Narro, a public university and school of agriculture, was founded at the Buenavista Estate bequeathed to the public by the late philanthropist Antonio Narro Rodríguez.[citation needed]
In Ireland's national championship for hurling, Limerick's Shannonsiders defeated Dublin's Boys in Blue, 8 goals and 5 points to Dublin's 3 goals and 2 points, equivalent to a 29 to 11 victory, based on goals being worth 3-points each.[18]
The Anti-Flirt Club, whose purpose was to protect young women and girls from unwelcome attention from men, launched "Anti-Flirt Week".[19]
Piero D'Inzeo, Italian Olympic show jumping rider and 1959 world champion; in Rome (d. 2014)
March 5, 1923 (Monday)
Soviet Foreign Affairs Minister Georgy Chicherin delivered a note of protest to Finnish ambassador Antti Hackzell protesting Finland's negotiations with the League of Nations over the Karelia region, which the Soviets saw as theirs.[20]
The U.S. state of Washington adopted an official flag for the first time, more than 33 years after becoming the 42nd U.S. state in 1889. The banner consisted of the state seal being displayed against a dark green background. Prior to 1923, a blue flag with a gold profile of U.S. President Washington had been displayed unofficially.[22]
Harry F. Young, a former steeplejack who had used his skills from working high on buildings as a construction worker before making more money as one of several building climbers who billed themselves as "The Human Fly", fell to his death from New York's Martinique Hotel, when he slipped while doing stunt work to draw attention to Harold Lloyds new comedy, Safety Last!. Young reached the ledge of the 10th floor of the 12-story hotel but his foot slipped. "For an incredible moment," The New York Times reported, "Young seemed to stand in space, then his white form came crashing down onto a coping and went in a quick plunge to the sidewalk."[23]
Robert Irsay, U.S. pro football team owner known for purchasing the NFL's Baltimore Colts in 1972 and moving the team 12 years later to Indianapolis; in Chicago (d. 1997)
The Halibut Treaty was signed between the United States and Canada. It was the first time Canada had ever signed a treaty with a foreign nation without involving a representative from Britain.[27]
German Chancellor Wilhelm Cuno told the Reichstag that Germany would not enter direct negotiations with France over the reparations issue, but would do so through a third party.[29]
The government of British Prime Minister Bonar Law was pressured by the opposition to take a more definite stand on the issue of France's policy toward the Ruhr region.[30]
Five soldiers of the Irish Free StateArmy were killed by a "booby trap" bomb while searching a suspected Irish Republican Army (IRA) at Baranarigh Wood near the village of Knocknagoshel in County Kerry. A gruesome reprisal was carried out the next day against nine IRA prisoners the next day.
Born:
Ed McMahon, U.S. television personality known for being the sidekick of Johnny Carson on The Tonight Show and for starrin in his own program, Star Search; in Detroit (d. 2009)
The execution by explosion of eight inmates was carried out by Irish Free State authorities at the village of Ballyseedy in County Kerry after a group of nine was taken to a crossroads and tied together around a land mine, which was then detonated. One prisoner, Stephen Fuller (who would later become a member of the Irish parliament), was blown free and escaped to treatment for his injuries. The other prisoners who survived the explosion were shot to death by the Irish Army.[31]
Adolf Hitler told the Chicago Tribune that he would support automobile magnate Henry Ford (who was known for his anti-Semitism) if Ford ran for President of the United States, though he denied that the Nazi Party had received any financial backing from Ford. The Nazis had established a large organization in Munich sending out reproductions of antisemitic writings first published in the Ford-owned newspaper The Dearborn Independent.[32]
Aviation pioneer Lawrence Sperry, who had invented the autopilot and the artificial horizon for airplanes and founded the Sperry Aircraft Company, demonstrated to skeptics that refueling an airplane in flight would someday be possible. Sperry piloting a small Sperry Messenger, was able to fly in close enough proximity to a de Havilland airplane flown by Lieutenant Clyde Finter that the two planes touched eight times during the demonstration above the Mineola Airfield at Long Island. Both airplanes were flying at 65 miles per hour (105 km/h) as the contact was demonstrated.[33]
King George V and Queen Consort Elizabeth broke British tradition by having dinner at the home of one of their subjects, rather than hosting their guests. Waldorf Astor, 2nd Viscount Astor of the House of Lords and his wife, U.S. native Nancy Astor of the House of Commons hosted their majesties in a meeting with various labour union executives in an affair that "was unique in British social history."[34]
The short comedy film The Love Nest starring Buster Keaton was released. It was the final short film of Keaton's silent-era career as he would concentrate on feature-length movies over the next decade.[35]
Born:Louk Hulsman, Dutch forensic scientist and criminologist; in Kerkrade (d. 2009)
Vladimir Lenin, General Secretary of the Soviet Communist Party and the de facto leader of the Soviet Union, suffered his third stroke in less than a year. Lenin had returned to work on October 3 with limited duties as permitted by his four physicians. The Communist Party newspaper Pravda informed the Russian public of the news on March 12, announcing "Lenin's health has markedly worsened. Symptoms of blood vessel rupture again appeared, causing certain interference with the power of movement of the right arm and leg.".[36]
A detective with the bomb squad of the New York City Police Department (NYPD) revealed that the squad's detectives had discovered that 30 NYPD uniformed policemen were members of the Ku Klux Klan.[37]
The first bill ever introduced by a woman in the British House of Commons was carried, 338 to 56. It was Lady Astor's bill forbidding the sale of alcohol for consumption on the premises to persons under 18 years of age. The previous law allowed sales of beer to 14-year-olds and spirits to those of 16.[38]
The largest meatpacking company in the United States, with half a billion dollars in assets, was created by the merger of Armour and Company with Morris & Company.[39]
A man from New York became the first person to jump from the Washington Monument to commit suicide. Albert B. Seip went to the observation room near the top of the monument, exited a window, and plunged 504 feet (154 m) to his death.[40]
The capsizing of a Greek Navy transport, the Alexandros, killed about 150 Greek officers and soldiers of the battleships , Kilkis, Lemnos and Savaroff who were sailing between Salamis and Piraeus.[42]
An F5 tornado swept through Madison County, Tennessee, destroying more than 50 homes killing 20 people and injuring 70 others in and around the western Tennessee town of Pinson.[45][46]
American electronics engineer Lee de Forest held a press conference to demonstrate his new system of "talking movies", Phonofilm. The process recorded sound directly on to film so that what was seen and what was heard was simultaneously reproduced. De Forest announced that he would soon be releasing short Phonofilms to be played at New York's Rivoli Theater.[49]
Seven German civilians were killed and 13 wounded in Dusseldorf by French troops in the occupied Ruhr region following the March 10 murder of two French officials.[50]
In Paris, the governors of the International Lawn Tennis Federation (ILTF) voted to end the practice of recognizing the three world championship tennis tournaments (for grass courts, clay courts and indoor competition) and to coordinate four national championships that became the "Grand Slam"— the Australian Open, the French Open, Wimbledon (in the UK) and the U.S. Open.[60] "Thus," an Associated Press report said, "the selection of world champions will be left to the press experts or popular opinion, and as such they will be unofficial."[61] The following day, the United States Lawn Tennis Association board voted to join the ILTF.[62]
Irish boxer Mike McTigue dethroned the reigning world champion, Senegalese fighter Louis Mbarick Fall (who fought as "Battling Siki") to win boxing's World Light Heavyweight Championship by decision after a 20 round bout at La Scala Opera House in Dublin, Ireland. The police presence was heavy due to the bomb threat, and one exploded near the venue as the boxers were entering the ring. Two children were injured and nearby windows were blown out by the blast.[65][66]
The first airline of Soviet Russia, Dobrolet, a predecessor of Aeroflot, was formed by the government's amalgamation of several private air carriers with an initial investment of 500,000 gold rubles by the government.[67] It would inaugurate its first flight on July 15, 1923, between Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod.
Police in Moscow arrested Soviet Russian serial killer Vasili Komaroff. The well-regarded horse trader confessed to murdering 33 people over the previous two years, in all cases men whom he had met at a market and then lured to his home on the pretext of inspecting a horse that Komaroff had for sale.[68] Komaroff would be executed on June 18.
Daugherty and Harding
U.S. Attorney General Harry M. Daugherty announced that President Warren G. Harding would run for re-election in 1924, barring unforeseen ill health.[69] Asked whether he believed that there would be any circumstances under which President Harding would decline to run in 1924, Daugherty told reporters "None, unless his health should fail him."[70] Daugherty's announcement surprised political observers for both its earliness and by the fact that Harding had made no comment. "Why the Attorney General should make the announcement at this time is a subject of comment here," a reporter wrote, adding "It is generally agreed that no Cabinet officer would make a statement so important, particularly one so initmately concerning the President, without the President's express authority."[71] President Harding, who had numerous health problems, died of a heart attack on August 2, 1923, less than five months after Daugherty's announcement.
The expression "Because it's there" as a standard reply by explorers asked about why they wish to make a dangerous undertaking, made its entry to the English language after being said by mountain climber George Mallory, or by an interviewer from The New York Times. The newspaper feature read "'Why did you want to climb Mount Everest?' This question was asked of George Leigh Mallory, who was with both expeditions toward the summit of the world's highest mountain, in 1921 and 1923, and who is now in New York. He plans to go again in 1924, and he gave as the reason for persisting in these repeated attempts to reach the top, 'Because it's there.'"[72][73]
A representative for the German Ministry of Finance said that hyperinflation and the occupation of the Ruhr had made it impossible to manage the country's finances, with the budget for 1922–23 showing a deficit of 7.1 trillion (7,100,000,000,000) marks.[76]
The Soviet Union announced that it was sending 70,000 tons of grain to help workers in the Ruhr.[77]
Jan Cieplak, Konstantin Budkevich and fourteen other Roman Catholic priests were put on trial in the Soviet Union on charges of counter-revolutionary activities. Budkevich would be executed after 10 days.[78]
The 8-member Royal Commission on London Government, commonly called the Ullswater Commission for its chairman, Viscount Ullswater, published its final reports on possible governmental reform[79] within the boroughs of the 117 square miles (300 km2) County of London, which included the City of London and of Westminster, as well as towns on the outskirts of the borough (Greenwich, Wandsworth, Hackney and Camden). Three reports were issued, with four commissioners recommending almost no change, two urging comprehensive reforms, and two declaring the majority report as "altogether inadequate."
Died: Milo D. Campbell, 71, died only seven days after being sworn in as one of the five members of "The Fed", the Federal Reserve Board of Governors the controls U.S. monetary policy. Campbell, who joined on March 15 after being president of the National Milk Producers' Association, was playing golf with former U.S. Senator Charles E. Townsend when he collapsed and died of a cerebral hemorrhage.[82]
The General Staff of the Army of Poland issued an order directing that people of Jewish origin were not to be recruited into specialized units, including the Border Protection Corps, communications, or aviation.[84]
With odds of more than 16 to 1, the 13-year-old thoroughbred Sergeant Murphy won the Grand National horse race, after 21 of the 28 horses (including the favorite, Arravale) fell during jumping of fences.[86]
Soviet Prosecutor Nikolai Krylenko made his closing speech in the trial of 16 priests, demanding the death penalty, "not because we are bloodthirsty, but because this is a political necessity. We must safeguard our regime ... We cannot recognize the defense that they must obey the canons of the church and that first they are priests and afterwards citizens."[89]
Assumption College, a small higher education institution in the Greendale section of Worcester, Massachusetts, lost the building that held both the college classrooms and the student dormitories, in a fire suspected to be arson. All 130 students were able to escape,[90] and the Roman Catholic college, now Assumption University, continues to operate nearly a century later.
Double guards were placed at the Reichstag and other key locations around Berlin amid rumors that Adolf Hitler was plotting a coup.[91]
An all-day conference was held in Berlin among members of labour and socialist parties from Germany, England, France, Italy and Belgium searching for a solution to the reparations problem.[92]
Died: Louis Burstein, 45, Russian-born American film producer known for King Bee Films releases of 180 short films and four full length dramas, including 1922's Forget Me Not, was killed along with one of the passengers in his car when he tried to outrace a train near Pomona, California.[93]
March 26, 1923 (Monday)
Roman Catholic priests Jan Cieplak and Konstantin Budkevich were sentenced to death for counter-revolutionary activities in the Soviet Union. Thirteen of the other fourteen were given prison sentences and a choir boy was released.[94]
The strike of 20,000 farm laborers in England began in protest of a pay cut imposed on them, reducing their wages from 25 shillings per week down to 22 shillings.[95]
Died:Sarah Bernhardt, 78, French stage and film actress, died in Paris, five days after she had collapsed at home while rehearsing for the filming of a Sacha Guitry movie, La Voyant.[96]
March 27, 1923 (Tuesday)
The new 1923 Constitution of Romania was approved by the Romanian Senate, 137 to 2, after having passed the Chamber of Deputies the day before, 247 to 8.[citation needed] It came into force two days later.
Gerald Chapman, called "The Gentleman Bandit" and known for his string of armed robberies with Dutch Anderson and Charles Loeber, escaped from Atlanta Federal Prison after sawing through the bars of his cell and escaping with forger Frank Grey.[97] Both were captured the next day and Chapman was wounded in the process.[98] Chapman escaped from the hospital on April 4 after surgery for bullet wounds in his arm and a kidney[99] and would commit more robberies over the next 18 months.
A semi-official statement was issued from the Vatican urging suspension of the sentences of the Catholic priests in the Soviet Union. A Soviet official had the executions postponed pending "special instructions".[100]
A young Mexican woman by the name of Marina Vega broke into Charlie Chaplin's house in the Hollywood Hills. She was cajoled out and removed from the premises, but she broke back in again and was found in Chaplin's bedroom wearing his pajamas. Vega told Chaplin she had come all the way from Mexico City to meet him; Chaplin got her to leave in exchange for promising to buy her a train ticket home.[105]
March 30, 1923 (Friday)
Benito Mussolini made a famous speech on Italian emigration, declaring that, "For better or for worse, emigration is a physiological necessity of the Italian people. We are forty million people enclosed in our narrow peninsula that has too many mountains, a land that cannot feed everyone." The speech was a defining moment of Mussolini's early premiership as he spun a negative trend into a positive one and offered a justification for expansionism.[106]
Eleven employees of Germany's Krupp automobile factory in Essen were killed when French forces opened fire on the passively resisting workers. Two more later died in the hospital.[107][108][109]
America's first dance marathon ended at the Audubon Ballroom in New York City. At 9:57 p.m., Alma Cummings completed twenty-seven consecutive hours of dancing, having worn out six different male dance partners. The event attracted a great deal of publicity, and dance marathons became a huge fad over the next few months, remaining popular throughout the 1920s and '30s.[111][112]
The British Foreign Office announced the release of Egyptian independence activist Saad Zaghloul from exile in Gibraltar, 15 months after his deportation to the island of Malta, followed by further exile on the Seychelles Islands in the South Pacific Ocean.[113]
Marina Vega, a deranged fan of film comedian Charlie Chaplin, appeared again at the door of his home, lying down in his driveway after throwing red roses on it. Chaplin's valet thought Vega had shot herself when she mistook an oil-stain on the driveway for blood, and Vega was rushed into the kitchen where she said she had taken poison. An ambulance took her to the hospital where she was treated and released; it was unclear whether Vega had actually poisoned herself.[105]
Russian gunboats seized a British trawler near Murmansk.[114]
The government of Turkey pardoned the remaining officers and enlisted men who had been convicted in court-martial proceedings within the Ottoman Empire in 1919 and 1920, and released those who were still in prison.[115]
Died: Konstantin Budkevich, 55, Latvian Roman Catholic priest, was executed at Butyrka prison in the Soviet Union, less than three weeks after his March 13 arrest for "anti-Soviet agitation" after passive resistance to the anti-religious campaign conducted by the nation's Communist government.[116] The Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party had decided on March 29 to commute the death penalty of other convicted priests after appeals from other nations, but declined an offer from Poland to exchange prisoners from the Soviet Union in exchange for Budkevich.[117][118]
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^"Change of Greek Calendar to End 'Double Living'", Houston Post, March 11, 1923, p. 16
^"Uruguay Inducts President; Jose Serrato to Take Helm of Government for Next Four Years", Philadelphia Inquirer, March 1, 1923, p. 10
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^"W. Bourke Cochran Dies After Oration— Stricken at 69th Birthday Celebration Following Speech in House; Last Wish Unfulfilled", The New York Times, March 3, 1923, p. 5
^"French Confiscate Ruhr Rolling Stock; 233 Locomotives and Large Number of Cars Now Held by the Troops", The New York Times, March 3, 1923, p. 3
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^"Senate Balks World Court Move, 49—24; Only 1 Republican Backs Democrat's Plan to Give What Harding Asked", The New York Times, March 4, 1923, p. 1
^"Five More Towns Along the Rhine Occupied by French— Troops Seize Darmstadt Rail Yards and Enter Mannheim and Port of Karlsruhe", The New York Times, March 4, 1923, p. 1
^"Poisoned Rice Kills 22; Five Cooks Who Prepared Hangchow Banquet Are Arrested", The New York Times, March 14, 1923, p. 2
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^"Planes Prove Theory of Refueling in Air; Make Contact 8 Times at 65-Mile Speed", The New York Times, March 9, 1923, p. 1
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^"Lenin Suffers a Stroke, Condition Is Serious; Announcement Causes a Sensation in Moscow", by Walter Duranty, The New York Times, March 14, 1923, p. 1
^"Say 30 Policemen Belong to Ku Klux— Detectives of Bomb Squad Investigate Report That Associates Are in the Klan", The New York Times, March 10, 1923, p. 13
^"Lady Astor Wins Big Parliament Vote in Rum Law". Chicago Daily Tribune. March 10, 1923. p. 3.
^"Armour and Morris Complete Merger; New York and Chicago Bankers Close Deal by Setting a Value on Armour Stock Exchanged", The New York Times, March 10, 1923, p. 1
^"Youth Leaps from Washington Shaft; Albert B. Seip of Washington, Formerly in a Sanitarium, Plunges 504 Feet to Death; Every Bone in His Body Broken— Scientists Figure he Hit With Impact of 300,000 Foot-Tons", The New York Times, March 10, 1923, p. 1
^Clayton, John (March 16, 1923). "Berlin Offers $10,000,000,000 to Free Ruhr". Chicago Daily Tribune. p. 1.
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^"Harding Will Run, Nation Wants Him, Says Daugherty", The New York Times, March 18, 1923, p. 1
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^"Climbing Mount Everest Is Work for Supermen; A Member of Former Expeditions Tells of the Difficulties Involved in Reaching the Top — Hope of Winning in 1924 by Establishment of Base Camps on a Higher Level", The New York Times, March 18, 1923, p. 7-1
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^"College Burns Down, Incendiary Suspected— Students of Catholic Institution in Greendale, Mass., Escape in Their Night Clothes, The New York Times, March 25, 1923, p. 1
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^"Film Magnate and Horseman Killed in Auto Crash", The Los Angeles Times, March 26, 1923, p. 1
^"Big Farm Strike of 20,000 Grips English County". Chicago Daily Tribune. March 27, 1923. p. 2.
^"Bernhardt Dies in Her Son's Arms in Paris— 'Greatest Actress' to Have a State Funeral— Flowers Cover Her Deathbed", The New York Times, March 27, 1923, p. 1
^"$1,000,000 Holdup Chief Saws Way out of Atlanta", Brooklyn (NY) Daily Eagle, March 27, 1923, p. 1
^"Recapture Man Who Robbed Randolph Bank", Boston Globe, March 28, 1923, p. 1
^"Gerald Chapman, 'Million Dollar' Mail Bandit, in Sensational Escape from Athens Hospital— Wounded Convict Uses Two Sheets in Place of Rope", Atlanta Constitution, April 5, 1923, p. 1
^"Set Execution of Rome Bishop for Tomorrow". Chicago Daily Tribune. March 28, 1923. p. 2.
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^"British Decide to Fre Saad Zaghlul Pasha; Ill Health of Egyptian Agitator Caused Anxiety Lest He Might Die in Captivity", The New York Times, March 31, 1923, p. 2
^Steele, John (April 4, 1923). "Gunboats of Russia Seize British Ship". Chicago Daily Tribune. p. 1.
^Huberta von Voss, Portraits of Hope : Armenians in the Contemporary World (Berghahn Books, 2007) p. 320
^"Prison for Zepliak, But Vicar Must Die, Soviet Chiefs Rule— Clemency Is Refused to Butchkavitch as Having Aided an Enemy in War", The New York Times, March 31, 1923, p. 1
^"Shot Vicar General in Back of the Head; Soviet Authorities Took Him to Cellar and Made Him Stand in Front of the Executioner", The New York Times, April 5, 1923, p. 1
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